MANUAL OF 
AMERICAN 

GRAPE- 
GROWING 

Hedrick 




Book r hi 4 - 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



XTbe IRural /IDanuals 

Edited by L. II. BAILEY 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 





Ube iRural /iDanuals 






Edited by L. H. BAILEY 






Jt 




Manual 


OF Gardening — Bailey 




Manual 


OF Farm Animals — Harper 




Farm and Garden Rule-Book — Bailey 




Manual 


OF Fruit Insects — Slingerland and Crosby 


Manual 


OF Weeds — Georgia 




The Pruning-Manual — Bailey 




Manual 


OF Fruit Diseases — Hesler and 


Whetzel 


Manual 


OF Milk Products — Stocking 




Manual 


OF Vegetable-Garden Insects - 


- Crosby 


and 


Leonard 




Manual 


OF Tree Diseases — EanJcin 




Manual 


OF Home-Making — Van Rensselaer, Rose, 


and Canon 




Manual 


OF American Grape-Growing — 


Hedrick 



MANUAL OF 

AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



U. p. HEDRICK 

• I 

HORTICULTURIST OF THE NKW YORK AGRICULTURAX 
EXPERIMENT STATION 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1919 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1919, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1919. 



JUL -7 1919 



Noriuoot) )Pnss 

J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mas3., U.S.A. 



©CI.A5201i2 



PREFACE 

Seventy-nine books on grapes enrich the pomology of 
North America, not counting numerous state and national 
publications. Pomological writers in America have been 
partial to the grape, for other fruits do not fare nearly so well. 
Twenty-two books are devoted to the strawberry, fourteen to 
the apple, to the peach nine, cranberry eight, plum five, pear 
nine, quince two, loganberry one, while the cherry, raspberry, 
and blackberry are not once separated from other fruits in 
special books. Thus, though a comparative newcomer among 
the fruits of the country, the grape has been singled out for a 
treatise more times than all other fruits of temperate climates 
combined — seventy-nine books on the grape, seventy on 
all other fruits. 

This statement of partiality does not lead to an apology for 
a new book on the grape. There is urgent need for a new book. 
But three of the seventy-nine treatises on this fruit are con- 
temporary, and all but one, a handbook on training, are records 
from vanished minds. JNIethods change so rapidly and varieties 
multiply so fast, that to keep pace there must be new books on 
fruits every few years. Besides, the types of grapes are so 
diverse, and diflFerent soils, climates, and treatments produce 
such widely dissimilar results, that many books are required to 
do justice to this fruit — the vineyard should be seen through 
many eyes. 

Commercial grape-growing is now a great industry in America, 
and deserves a treatise of its own. But there are also many 
demands for information on grape-growing by those who grow 
fruits for pleasure, especially by those who are escaping from 



VI PREFACE 

cities to suburban homes, for the grape is a favorite fruit of 
the amateur. And so, though Pleasure and Profit are a hard 
team to drive together, this manual is written for both com- 
mercial and amateur grape-growers. 

In particular, the needs of the amateur are recognized in the 
chapter on varieties, where many sorts are described which 
have little or no commercial value. No other fruit offers the 
enchantment of novelty to be found in the grape. Alluring 
flavors, sizes, and colors abound, of which the amateur wants 
samples. The commercial grower who plants but one variety 
often finds himself dissatisfied with the humdrum of the 
business. He should emulate the amateur and plant more 
kinds, if only for pleasure, remembering the adage, "No 
profit grows where is no pleasure ta'en." Greater pleasure in 
grape-growing, then, is offered as the justification of the long 
chapter on varieties. 

At the risk of too broad spreading, the author discusses, in 
a book mainly devoted to native grapes, the culture of European 
grapes in the far West. The chief aim is, of course, to set forth 
information that will be helpful to growers of these grapes in 
the western states, there being no treatises to which western 
growers can refer, other than bulletins from state and national 
agricultural institutions. There is, however, another reason 
for attempting to cover the whole field of grape-growing in 
America. It is certain that eastern grape-groM'ers will some- 
time grow European grapes. Western vineyards might well 
be enlarged with plantings of native grapes. On the sup- 
position, then, that the culture of both European and native 
grapes is to become less and less restricted in America, the 
author has ventured to discuss the culture of all grapes for all 
parts of North America. 

In the preparation of this manual, the author's "The Grapes 
of New York," a book long out of print and never widely 
distributed, has been laid under heavy contribution, especially 



PREFACE Vll 

in the description of varieties. Acknowledgments are dne to 
F. Z. Hartzell for reading the chapter on Grape Pests and 
their Control and for furnishing most of the photographs used 
in making ilkistrations of insects and fungi ; to F. E. Gladwin 
for similar help in preparing the two chapters on pruning 
and training the grape in eastern America ; to Frederic T. 
Bioletti for permission to republish from a bulletin written by 
him from the Agricultural Experiment Station of California 
almost the whole chapter on Grape Pruning on the Pacific 
Slope; and to O. ]M. Taylor and to R. D. Anthony for very 
material assistance in reading the manuscript and proofs. 

U. P. Hedrick. 

Geneva, X. Y.. 

Jan. 1, 1919. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

I The Domestication of the Grape 










PAGE 
1 


II Grape Regions and their Determinants 






16 


III Propagation 






36 


IV Stocks and Resistant Vines . 






61 


\' The Vineyard and its Management 






73 


VI Fertilizers for Grapes .... 






97 


VII Pruning the Grape in Eastern America 






108 


VIII Training the Grape in Eastern America 






123 


IX Grape-pruning on the Pacific Coast . 






150 


X European Gr.\pes in Eastern America 






184 


XI Grapes under Glass .... 






192 


XII Grape Pests and their Control 










204 


XIII Marketing Grapes . 










230 


XIV Grape Products 










250 


XV Grape Breeding 










273 


XVI Miscellanies .... 










284 


XVII Grape Botany .... 










300 


XVIII Varieties of Grapes 










330 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PLATE 
I. 



II. 
III. 

IV. 
V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 



PLATES 

PAGE 

Two views of vineyards in California ; a vineyard in the 
orchard region of central California, and a vineyard in 
southern California . . . . . . .14 

Fitting the land for planting 34 *^ 

Cover-crop ; cow-horn turnips, and rye . . . . 48 u^ 
A well-tilled vineyard of Concords . . . . . 60 '-' 
Vinifera grapes grown out of doors in New York ; Mal- 

vasia and Chasselas Golden 72 

Black Hamburg 82-^ 

Barry. Delaware .96 

Brighton 106--^ 

Campbell Early 114"^ 

Clinton 122*^ 

Concord .......... 138 

Diana 148"^ 

Dutchess 164 '^ 

Eaton 182^ 

Eclipse 190 '-^ 

Eh-ira 202- 

Empire State 218*^ 

Herbert 228^ 

lona 248"^ 

Isabella 272 "^ 

Jefferson 282^ 

Lindley. Lucile 298-^ 

Lutie. Pocklington 328 «^ 

Moore Early 340 ^ 

xi 



xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATE PAGE 

XXV. Muscat Hamburg 350 

XXVI. Niagara 360 

XXVII. Salem 370 

XXVIII. Triumph 380 

XXIX. Vergennes 390 

XXX. Winchell 400 

XXXI. Worden 416- 

XXXII. Wyoming 432 < 

FIGURES IN THE TEXT 

FIGURE 

1. A shoot of Vitis vinifera 3 

2. A shoot of Vitis Lnbrusca . . . . . . . . 6 

3. A shoot of Vitis rotundifolia 10 

4. A shoot of Vitis CBstivalis 12 

5. A shoot of Vitis vidpina 14 

6. Planting cuttings . . ... . . . . .40 

7. A cutting beginning growth .40 

8. Cutting off the trunk 46 

9. Cutting the cleft 47 

10. Inserting the cion 47 

11. The completed graft 47 

12. Bench-grafted cuttings of grape, showing the cleft-graft and 

the whip-graft. (Adapted from Husmann) .... 51 

13. Vine ready for pruning 113 

14. A "go-devil" for collecting prunings 119 

15. A trellis and a common method of bracing end posts • . 120 

16. Chautauqua training ; vine ready to prune .... 127 

17. Keuka method of training 130 

18. Single-stem four-cane Kniffin training 133 

19. Umbrella method of training 134 

20. Two-trunk Kniffin training 135 

21. Rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead method . . 144 

22. A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm renewal method . 145 

23. Forms of head pruning 154 

24. Forms of head pruning 155 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Xlll 



Head pruning : fan-shaped head ; fruit canes tied to horizontal 
treUis 

Single vertical cordon with fruit-spurs 

Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit-spurs 

Three-year-old vine ready for pruning 

Vine of Fig. 28 after pruning for vase-formed head 

Tliree-year-old vines : A, pruned for a vase-formed, and B, for 
a fan-shaped head ...... 

Four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed head 

Four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed head 

Fan-shaped vines: A, before pruning; B, after pruning 

Vertical cordon, yovuig vine pruned 

Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long pruning , 

Leaf-galls of the phylloxera ..... 

The grape root-worm 

Root-worm beetle 

Injuries caused by beetles of the grape root-worm 

Eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle 

First four stages of the grape leaf-hopper . 

The fifth and the mature stages of the grape leaf-hopper 

A bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry moth 

Work of black-rot of the grape . 

Grapes attacked by downy-mildew 

Packing grapes on a packing-table 

Climax baskets in two sizes 

William Robert Prince 

E. S. Rogers 

T. V. Munson 

Staminate and perfect flower clusters on one vine 

Ringing grape-vines ; showing tools for ringing and ringed 
vines ......... 

A grape flower ; showing the opening cap and stamens 

Grape flowers ; showing upright and depressed stamens 



lo(i 
l.J7 

loS 

169 

170 
171 
172 
173 
17H 
177 
205 
207 
207 
207 
209 
212 
212 
214 
219 
221 
234 
236 
274 
275 
277 
285 

292 
305 
306 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE- 
GROWING 

CHAPTER I 
THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 

The domestication of an animal or a plant is a milestone in 
the advance of agriculture and so becomes of interest to every 
human being. But, more particularly, the materials, the events 
and the men who direct the work of domestication are of interest 
to those who breed and care for animals and plants ; the grape- 
grower should find much profit in the stor}' of the domestication 
of the grape. What was the raw material of a fruit known since 
the beginning of agriculture and wherever temperate fruits are 
grown ? How has this material been fashioned into use ? Who 
were the originative and who the directive agents? These are 
fundamental questions in the improvement of the grape, answers 
to which will also throw much light on the culture of it. 

Botanists number from forty to sixty species of grapes in the 
world. These are widely distributed in the northern hemi- 
sphere, all but a few being found in temperate countries. Thus, 
more than half of the named species come from the United 
States and Canada, while nearly all of the others are from 
China and Japan, with but one species certainly growing wild 
in southwestern Asia and bordering parts of Europe. All true 
grapes have more or less edible fruits, and of the twenty or 
more species grown in the New World more than half have been 
or are being domesticated. Of the Old World grapes, only one 

B 1 



2 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

species is cultivated for fruit, but this, of all grapes, is of 
greatest economic importance and, therefore, deserves first 
consideration. 

The European Grape 

The European grape, J^itis vinifera (Fig. 1), is the grape of 
ancient and modern agriculture. It is the vine which Noah 
planted after the Deluge ; the vine of Israel and of the Promised 
Land ; the vine of the parables in the New Testament. It is the 
grape and the vine of the myths, fables, poetry and prose of all 
peoples. It is the grape from which the wines of the world are 
made. From it come the raisins of the world. It is the chief 
agricultural crop of southern Europe and northern Africa and 
of vast regions in other parts of the world, having followed 
civilized man from place to place in all temperate climates. 
The European grape has so impressed itself on the human mind 
that when one thinks or speaks of the grape, or of the vine, it is 
this Old World species, the vine of antiquity, that presents itself. 

The written records of the cultivation of the European grape 
go back five or six thousand years. The ancient Egyptians, 
Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans grew the vine and made wine 
from its fruit. Grape seeds have been found in the remains of 
European peoples of prehistoric times, showing that primitive 
men enlivened their scanty fare with wild grapes. Cultivation 
of the grape in the Old World probably began in the region about 
the Caspian Sea where the vine has always run wild. We have 
proof of the great antiquity of the grape in Egypt, for its seeds 
are found entombed with the oldest mummies. Probably the 
Phoenicians, the earliest navigators on the Mediterranean, 
carried the grape from Egypt and Syria to Greece, Rome and 
other countries bordering on this sea. The domestication of 
the grape was far advanced in Christ's time, for Pliny, writing 
then, describes ninety-one kinds of grapes and fifty kinds of 
wine. 



THE DOMESTICATIOX OF THE GRAPE 



It can never bo known exactly when the European grape came 
under cultixation. There is no word as to what were the 
methods and processes of domestication, and whose the minds 
and hands that remodeled the wild grape of Europe into the 










Fig. 1. A shuui of Vitis vinifera. 



4 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-OROWINO 

grape of the vineyards. The Old World grape was domesti- 
cated long before the faint traditions which have been trans- 
mitted to our day could possibly have arisen. For knowledge 
of how wild species of this fruit have been and may be brought 
under cultivation, we must turn to New World records. 

American Grapes 

Few other plants in the New World grow wild under such 
varied conditions and over such extended areas as the grape. 
Wild grapes are found in the warmer parts of New Brunswick ; 
on the shores of the Great Lakes ; everywhere in the wood- 
lands of the North and Middle Atlantic states ; on the limestone 
soils of Kentucky, Tennessee and the Virginias ; and they 
thrive in the sandy woods, sea plains and reef-keys of the 
South Atlantic and Gulf states. While not so common west 
of the Mississippi, yet some kind of wild grape is found from 
North Dakota to Texas ; grapes grow on the mountains and 
in the canons of all the Rocky Mountain states ; and several 
species thrive on the Mexican borders and in the far Southwest. 

While it is possible that all American grapes have descended 
from an original species, the types are now as diverse as the 
regions they inhabit. The wild grapes of the forests have 
long slender trunks and branches, whereby their leaves are 
better exposed to the sunlight. Two shrubby species do not 
attain a greater height than four or five feet ; these grow in 
sandy soils, or among rocks exposed to sun and air. Another 
runs on the ground and bears foliage almost evergreen. The 
stem of one species attains a diameter of a foot, bearing its 
foliage in a great canopy. From this giant form the species 
vary to slender, graceful, climbing vines. Wild grapes are as 
varied in climatic adaptations as in structure of vine and grow 
luxuriantly in every condition of heat or cold, wetness or dry- 
ness, capable of supporting fruit-culture in America. So 



THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 5 

many of the kinds have horticultural possibilities that it seems 
certain that some grape can be domesticated in all of the agri- 
cultural regions of the country, their natural plasticity indi- 
cating, even if it were not known from experience, that all can 
be domesticated. 

Leif the Lucky, the first European to visit America, if the 
Icelandic records are true, christened the new land Wineland. 
It has been supposed that this designation was given for the 
grapes, but recent investigations show that the fruits were 
probably mountain cranberries. Captain John Hawkins, who 
visited the Spanish settlements in Florida in 1565, mentions 
wild grapes among the resources of the New World. Amadas 
and Barlowe, sent out by Raleigh in 1584, describe the coasts 
of the Carolinas as, " so full of grapes that in all the world like 
abundance cannot be found." Captain John Smith, WTiting 
in 1606, describes the grapes of Virginia and recommends the 
culture of the vine as an industry for the newly founded colony. 
Few, indeed, are the explorers of the Atlantic seaboard who do 
not mention grapes among the plants of the country. Yet 
none saw intrinsic value in these wild vines. To the Europeans, 
the grapes of the Old World alone were worth cultivating, 
and the vines growing everywhere in America only suggested 
that the grape they had known across the sea might be grown 
in the new home. 

That American viticulture must depend on the native species 
for its varieties began to be recognized at the beginning of the 
nineteenth century, when several large companies engaged in 
growing foreign grapes failed, and a meritorious native grape 
made its appearance. The vine of promise was a variety 
known as the Alexander. Thomas Jefferson, ever alert for 
the agricultural welfare of the nation, writing in 1809 to John 
Adluni, one of the first experimenters with an American species, 
voiced the sentiment of grape experimenters in speaking of 
the Alexander: "I think it will be well to push the culture 



6 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

of this grape without losing time and efforts in the search of 
foreign vines, which it will take centuries to adapt to our soil 
and climate." 




Fig. 2. A shoot of Vitis Lahrusca. 



Alexander is an offshoot of the common fox-grape, Vitis 
Lahrusca (Fig. 2), found in the woods on the Atlantic coast from 
Maine to Georgia and occasionally in the Mississippi Valley. The 
history of the variety dates back to before the Revolutionary 



THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAFE 7 

War, when, acconlintj to William Bartraiii, the Quaker botanist, 
it was foinul growing in the vieinity of riiiladelphia, by John 
Alexander, gardener to Governor Penn of Pennsylvania. 
Curiously enough, it eame into general eultivation through 
the deception of a nurseryman. Peter Legaux, a French- 
American grape-grower, in 1801 sold the Kentucky Vineyard 
Society fifteen hundred grape cuttings which he said had been 
taken from an European grape introduced from the Cape of 
Good Hope, therefore called the "Cape" grape. Legaux's 
grape turned out to be the Alexander. In the new home the 
spurious Cape grew wonderfully well and as the knowledge of 
its fruitfulness in Kentucky, Ohio and Indiana spread, demand 
for it increased, and with remarkable rapidity, considering 
the time, it came into general cultivation in the parts of the 
United States then settled. 

The Labrusca or fox-grapes. 

Of the several species of American grapes now under culti- 
vation, the Labrusca, first represented by the Alexander, has 
furnished more cultivated varieties than all the other American 
species together, no less than five hundred of its varieties hav- 
ing been grown in the vineyards of the country. There are 
several reasons why it is the most generally cultivated species. 
It is native to the parts of the United States in which agriculture 
soonest advanced to a state where fruits were desired. In the 
wild, the Labruscas are the most attractive, being largest and 
handsomest in color ; among all grapes it alone shows black-, 
white- and red-fruited forms on wild vines. There is a northern 
and a southern form of the species, and its varieties are, there- 
fore, widely adapted to climates and to soils. The flavor of 
the fruits of this species, all things considered, is rather better 
than that of any other of our wild grapes, though the skins 
in most of its varieties have a peculiar aroma, somewhat pro- 
nounced in the well-known Concord, Niagara and Worden, 



8 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

which is disagreeable to tastes accustomed to the pure flavors 
of the European grapes. All Labruscas submit well to vineyard 
operations and are vigorous, hardy and productive, though 
they are more subject to the dreaded phylloxera than are most 
of the other cultivated native species. Of the many grapes 
of this type, at least two deserve brief historical mention. 

Catawba, probably a pure-bred Labrusca, the first American 
grape of commercial importance, is the most interesting variety 
of its species. The origin of the variety is not certainly known, 
but all evidence points to its having been found about the year 
1800 on the banks of the Catawba River, North Carolina. 
It was introduced into general cultivation by Major John 
Adlum, soldier of the Revolution, judge, surveyor and author 
of the first American book on grapes. Adlum maintained 
an experimental vineyard in the District of Columbia, whence 
in 1823 he began the distribution of the Catawba. At that 
time the center of American grape culture was about Cincin- 
nati, and an early shipment of Adlum 's Catawbas went to 
Nicholas Longworth of that city and was by him distributed 
throughout the grape-growing centers of the country. As 
one of the first to test new varieties of American grapes, to 
grow them largely and to make wine commercially from them, 
Nicholas Longworth is known as the "father of American 
grape culture." 

Catawba is still one of the four leading varieties in the vine- 
yards of eastern America. The characters whereby its high 
place is maintained among grapes are : Great elasticity of 
constitution, by reason of which the vine is adapted to many 
environments ; rich flavor, long-keeping quality, and hand- 
some appearance of fruit, qualities which make it a very good 
dessert grape ; high sugar-content and a rich flavor of juice, 
so that from its fruit is made a very good wine and a very good 
grape-juice; and vigor, hardiness and productiveness of vine. 
The characters of Catawba are readily transmissible, and it 



THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 9 

has many pure-bred or hybrid od'spring which more or less 
resemble it. 

The second commercial grape of importance in American 
viticulture is Concord, which came from the seed of a wild 
grape planted in the fall of 1843 by Ephraim W. Bull, Concord, 
^Massachusetts. The new variety was disseminated in the 
spring of 1854, and from the time of its introduction the spread 
of its culture was phenomenal. By 18()0 it was the leading 
grape in America and it so remains. Concord furnishes, with 
the varieties that have sprung from it, seventy-five per cent of 
the grapes grown in eastern America. The characters which 
distinguish the vine are : Adaptability to various soils, fruit- 
fulness, hardiness and resistance to diseases and insects. The 
fruits are distinguished by certainty of maturity, attractive 
appearance, good but not high flavor, and by the fact that 
they may be produced so cheaply that no other grape can com- 
pete with this variety in the markets. Concord is, as Horace 
Greeley well denominated it in awarding the Greeley prize 
for the best American grape, "the grape for the millions." 

The histories of these two grapes are typical of those of five 
hundred or more other Labruscas. Out of a prodigious num- 
ber of native seedlings, an occasional one is found greatly to 
excel its fellows and is brought under cultivation. 

The RohindifoUa or Muscadine grapes. 

Long before the northern Labruscas had attained prominence 
in the vineyards of the North, a grape had been domesticated 
partially in the South. It is Vitis rotundifolia (Fig. 3), a species 
which runs riot from the Potomac to the Gulf, thriving in many 
diverse soils, but growing only in the southern climate and 
preferring the seacoast. Rotundifolia grapes have been culti- 
vated somewhat for fruit or ornament from the earliest colonial 
times. It is certain that wine was made from this species by 
the English settlers at Jamestown. Vines of it are now to be 



10 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



found on arbors, in gardens or half wild on fences in nearly 
every farm in the South Atlantic states. That the Rotundifolias 
have not been more generally brought under cultivation is due 




Fig. 3. A shoot of Vitis rotundifoUa. 



to the bountifulness of the wild vines, which has obviated the 
necessity of domesticating them. The fruit of its varieties, 
to a palate unaccustomed to them, is not very acceptable, 



THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 11 

having a musky flavor and odor and a sweet, juicy pulp, which is 
hickino; in sprifihtliness. Many, however, acquire a taste for 
these grapes and find them pleasant eating. The great defect 
of this grape is that the berries part from the pedicels as they 
ripen and perfect bunches cannot be secured. In fact, the 
crop is often harvested by shaking the vines so that the berries 
drop on sheets beneath. Despite these defects, a score or 
more varieties of this species are now under general cultivation 
in the cotton-belt, and interest in their domestication is now 
greater than in any other species, with great promise for the 
future. 

The .Est { calls or sinnmer-grapes. 

The South has another grape of remarkable horticultural pos- 
sibilities. This is litis (Tsffvalis (Fig. 4), the summer-grape or, 
to distinguish it from the Rotundifolias, the bunch-grape of 
southern forests. There are now a score or more well-known 
varieties of this species, the best known being Norton, which 
probably originated with Dr. D. N. Norton, Richmond, Vir- 
ginia, in the early part of the nineteenth century. The berries 
of the true .Estivalis grapes are too small, too destitute of pulp 
and too tart to make good dessert fruits, but from them are 
made our best native red wines. Domestication of this species 
has been greatly retarded by a peculiarity of the species which 
hinders its propagation. Grapes are best propagated from 
cuttings, but this species is not easily reproduced by this means 
and the difficulty of securing good young vines has been a 
serious handicap in its culture. 

There are two subsi)ecies of T7//.9 cpstivalis which promise 
much for American viticulture. ]'itis cestimlis Bourquiniana, 
known only under cultivation and of very doubtful botanical 
standing, furnishes American viticulture sevwal valuable 
varieties. Chief of these is the Delaware, the introduction 
of which sixty years ago from the town of Delaware, Ohio, 



12 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



raised the standard in quality of New World grapes to that of 
Old World. No European grape has a richer or more delicate 
flavor, or a more pleasing aroma, than Delaware. While a 
northern grape, it can be grown in the South, and thrives under 




Fig. 4. A shoot of Vitis cestivalis. 

so many different climatic and soil conditions and under all is 
so fruitful, that, next to the Concord, it is the most popular 
American grape for garden and vineyard. Without question, 
however, Delaware contains a trace of European blood. 

Another offshoot of this subspecies is Herbemont, which, 
in the South, holds the same rank that Concord holds in the 



THE DOMESTICATION OF THE (IRAPE 13 

North. Tlie variety is grown only south of the Ohio, and in 
tills groat region it is c'stiTnied l)y all for a dessert grape and 
for its light red wine. It is one of the few Anieriean varieties 
which finds fa\i)r in France, being cultivated in southwest 
France as a wine-grape. Its history goes hack to a colony of 
French Huguenots in (ieorgia before the Revolutionary War. 
Very similar to Herbeniont is Lenoir, also with a history trac- 
ing back to the French in the Carolinas or Georgia in the 
eighteenth century. 

The other subspecies of Vitis cpsttmlift is Vitis cB.s'tivaJis 
Lincecumii, the post-oak grape of Texas and of the southern 
part of the Mississippi Valley. Recently this wild grape has 
been brought under domestication, and from it has been bred 
a number of most promising varieties for hot and dry regions. 

The Vulpina or river-bank grapes. 

The North, too, has a wine-grape from which wines nearly 
equaling those of the southern yEstlvalis are made. This is 
Jltis vulpina (T. riparia), the river-bank grape, a shoot of 
which is shown in Fig. 5, the most widely distributed 
of any of the native species. It grows as far north as 
Quebec, south to the Gulf of [Mexico and from the Atlan- 
tic to the Rocky Mountains. Fully a century ago, a 
wine-grape of this species was cultivated under the name 
Worthington, but the attention of vineyardists was not turned 
to the Vulpinas until after the middle of the last century, 
when the qualities of its vines attracted the attention of French 
viticulturlsts. Phylloxera had been introduced from America 
into France and threatened the existence of F'rench vineyards. 
After trying all possible remedies for the scourge, it was dis- 
covered that the Insect could be overcome by grafting Euro- 
pean grapes on American vines resistant to j)hyll()xera. A trial 
of the promising species of New World grapes showed that 
vines of this species were best suited for the reconstruction of 



14 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



French vineyards, the vines being not only resistant to the 
phylloxera but also vigorous and hardy. At present, a large 
proportion of the vines of Europe, California and other grape- 
growing regions are grafted on the roots of this or of other 




Fig. 5. A shoot of Vitis vidpina. 



THE DOMESTICATION- OF THE GRAPE 15 

American spocios, and the \iti('ulture of the world is thus largely 
dependent on these grapes. 

The French found that a number of the Vulpina (Riparia) 
grapes introduced for their roots were valuable as direct pro- 
ducers for wines. The fruits of this species are too small and 
too sour for dessert, but they are free from the disagreeable 
tastes and aromas of some of our native grapes and, therefore, 
make very good wines. The best known of the varieties of 
this species is the Clinton, which is generally thought to have 
originated in the yard of Dr. Noyes, of Hamilton College, 
Clinton, New York, about 1820. It is, however, probably the 
Worthington, of which the origin is unknown, renamed. There 
are possibly a hundred or more grapes now under cultivation 
wholly or in part from Vulpina, most of them hybrids with 
the American Labrusca and the European Vinifera, with both 
of which it hybridizes freely. 

Domesticated species of minor importance. 

In the preceding paragraphs we have seen that four species 
of grapes constitute the foundation of American viticulture. 
Nine other species furnish pure-bred varieties and many hybrids 
with the four chief species or among themselves. These are 
V. rupcstris, V. Longii, V. Champinii, V. Munsoniana, V. 
cordifolia, V. candicans, V. bicolor, V. monticola and V. Ber- 
landieri. Several of these nine species are of value in the vine- 
yard or for stocks upon which to graft other grapes. The 
domestication of all of these is just begun, and each year sees 
them more and more in use in the vinevards of the countrv. 



CHAPTER II 
GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 

Happily, the grape in its great diversity of forms accommo- 
dates itself to many conditions, so that some variety of the sev- 
eral cultivated species will produce fruit for home use, if not as a 
market commodity, in every part of x\merica adapted to gen- 
eral agriculture. But commercial grape-growing on this con- 
tinent is confined to a few regions, in each of which it is profit- 
able only in ideal situations. In fact, few other agricultural 
industries are more definitely determined by environment than 
the grape-industry. Where are the grape regions of America? 
What determines the suitability of a region for grape-growing? 
Answers to these questions furnish clews to the culture of this 
fruit and help in estimating the potentialities of a new region or 
of a location for grape-growing. 

The Grape Regions of America 

There are four chief grape-growing regions in North America, 
with possibly twice as many more subsidiary ones. These 
several regions, each of which has its distinct varieties and to 
less extent distinct species, and in each of which grapes are 
grown for somewhat widely different purposes, give a great 
variety of industrial conditions to the grape-growing of the 
continent. Nevertheless, the regions have much in common 
in their environment. It is from their differences and simi- 
larities that most can be learned in the brief discussions of 
the regions that follow. 

16 



ORAPE REGIOXS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 17 

The Pacific slope. 

Tho PaciKc slope takes precedence amonfj; the grape regions 
of the conthient, exceeding all others conihined in the i)ro<lnc- 
tion of grapes and grape prodncts. ralifornia is the viticnl- 
tural center of this great region, grapes being grown within her 
bounds from the foot of Mount Shasta on the north to Mexico 
on the south and from the foothills of the Sierras on the east 
to the forest that borders the coast on the west. So outlined, 
California might appear to be one vast vineyard, but it is only 
in favored valleys, plains and low hills in the territory bounded 
that the vine is sufficiently well suited to be productive. Out- 
liers of this main region of the Pacific slope run north into 
Oregon, Washington, Idaho and even into British Columbia, 
forced more and more eastward the farther north to escape 
humidity from the ocean which northward ])asses farther and 
farther inland. Other outliers of the main region are found 
eastward in Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and even Utah and 
Colorado, though for the most part in these states grape-grow- 
ing is still insignificant. Plate I. shows typical vineyards in 
California. 

The grapes grown on the Pacific slope are almost exclusively 
Vinifera varieties, though a few American grapes are planted 
in the Pacific Northwest. This is not because American 
varieties cannot be grown, although they succeed rather less 
well here than on the eastern seaboard, but because the Vini '- 
eras are liked better, and climate and soil seem exactly to suit 
them. Viticulture on the Pacific slope is divided into three 
interdependent industries which are almost never quite inde- 
pendent of each other — the wine industry, raisin industry and 
table-grape industry. Each of these industries depends on 
grapes more or less specially adapted to the product, the special 
characteristics being secured chiefly through somewhat distinct 
types of grapes but depending partly on soil and climatic con- 
c 



18 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ditions. The manufacture of unfermented grape-juice is not 
yet a success in this region for the reasons that Vinifera grapes 
do not make a good unfermented juice, and American grapes 
are not grown in sufficient quantities to warrant the estabhsh- 
ment of grape-juice plants. 

Bioletti gives the extent of the grape-growing industry- in 
CaHfornia as follows : ^ 

"The vineyards of California covered in 1912 about 385,000 
acres. Of this total, about 180,000 acres were producing wine- 
grapes. Roughly, 50 per cent of the wine was produced in the 
great interior valleys, including most of the sweet wines ; 35 
per cent was produced by the valleys and hillsides of the Coast 
ranges, including most of the dry wines ; the remaining 15 per 
cent was produced in Southern California and included both 
sweet and dry. 

"The raisin-grape vineyards covered about 130,000 acres, 
of which about 90 per cent were in the San Joaquin Valley, 
7 per cent in the Sacramento, and 3 per cent in Southern 
California. 

"The shipping-grape vineyards are reckoned at 75,000 acres, 
distributed about as follows : 50 per cent in the Sacramento 
Valley, 40 per cent in San Joaquin, 6 per cent in Southern 
California, and 4 per cent in the Coast ranges." 

The Chautauqua grape-belt. 

The Chautauqua grape-belt, lying along the northeastern 
shore of Lake Erie in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, is 
the second most important grape region in America. The 
"belt" is a narrow strip of lowland averaging about three miles 
in width, lying between Lake Erie and a high escarpment which 
bounds the belt on the south throughout its entire length of 
a hundred or more miles. Here climate and soil seem to be 

> Bioletti, Frederic T. Report of International Congress of Viti- 
culture, 88. 1915. 



GRAPE REGIOXS AM) THEIR DETERMI .\AXTS 19 

cxcri)tl()iially favorable for grape-{j;r()\viiij,'. Climate is the 
cliiet' (leterminaiit of the boundaries of this belt, since there 
are several types of soil upon which f;raj)es do eciuaily well in 
the rejijion, and when the climate chanfj;es at the two extremities 
of the belt where the esc-arpment becomes low, or when the 
distance between the lake and the escarpment is great, grape- 
growing ceases to be profitable. 

The growers of this region are organized into selling associa- 
tions so that estimates of acreage and yields are obtainable. 
At present writing, 1918, there are in this belt in New York 
about 35,000 acres of grapes ; in Pennsylvania anil Ohio, about 
15,000 acres, much the greater part of which is in Pennsylvania. 
The average yield of grapes to the acre for the region is about 
two tons. The average total production for the past five years 
has been about 100,000 tons, of which 65,000 tons are shipped 
as table-grapes, and 35,000 tons are used in the manufacture of 
wine and grape-juice. Among varieties, Concord reigns su- 
preme in the Chautaucpia belt. The writer, in 1906, made a 
canvass of the region, vineyard by vineyard, and found that 
90 per cent of the acreage of the belt was set to Concord, 3 per 
cent to Niagara, 2 per cent to Worden and the remaining 5 
per cent to a dozen or more varieties of which ^Nloore Early and 
Delaware led. 

The manufacture of grape-juice on a commercial scale began 
in the Chautauqua belt and most of this product is still pro- 
duced in the region. Here, only Concord grapes of the best 
quality are used for grape-juice. The growth of this industry 
is most significant for the future of grape-growing in the region. 
Twenty years ago grape-juice was a negligible factor in the 
grape industry of this region ; at present, the annual output 
is in the neighborhood of 4,000,000 gallons. Grape-juice- 
makers now determine the price of grapes for the region, and 
while the quantity used is less than that for table-grapes, the 
time is not distant when it will be greater. 



20 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

The Niagara region. 

Fifty miles due north of the Chautauqua belt, across the end 
of Lake Erie and the narrow isthmus of Niagara, is a smaller 
belt on the southern shore of Lake Ontario so similar in soil, 
climate and topography that in these respects the two regions 
might be considered as identical. This is the Niagara region, 
Canada's chief grape-producing area. It is bounded on the 
north by Lake Ontario ; on the south, at a distance of one to 
three miles by the high Niagara escarpment; to the east it 
crosses the Niagara River into New York ; and in the west 
tapers to a point at Hamilton on the westward extremity of 
Lake Ontario. Here, again, is the influence of climate dis- 
tinctly manifested. As this belt passes into New York, it widens 
and the influence of Lake Ontario is less and less felt to the 
eastward, and in consequence grape-growing becomes less and 
less profitable. 

There were, according to the Ontario Bureau of Industries, 
in 1914, about 10,850 acres of grapes in the Niagara region in 
Canada, and possibly 4,000 acres more near the Niagara River 
and along the shore of Lake Ontario in New York. The 
Niagara grape originated on the American side of the Niagara 
region and is here planted more extensively than elsewhere. 
Grape-growing in this region is similar in all respects to that of 
the Chautauqua belt, the same varieties and nearly identical 
methods of pruning, cultivation, spraying and harvesting being 
employed. The crop is chiefly used as table-grapes but the 
grape-juice industry is growing. 

The Central Lakes region of New York. 

In the central part of western New York are several remark- 
able bodies of water known as the Central Lakes. Three of 
these are large and deep enough to give ideal climatic condi- 
tions for grapes, and about these lakes are grouped several im- 



GRAPE REGIO.\S A\D THEIR DETERMIXANTS 21 

portant areas of vineyards, inakiiif^ tliis the third most im- 
portant grape region in Ameriea. Tiie region assumes further 
importance because most of the champagne made in America 
is produced here, and it is the chief center of still wines in east- 
ern America as well. It is further distinguished by its dis- 
tinctive types of grapes, Catawba and Delaware taking the 
place of Concord and Niagara, the sorts that usually pre- 
dominate in eastern grape regions. 

The main body of this region lies on the steep slopes of the 
high lands surrounding Keuka Lake. On the shores of this 
lake there are, approximately, 15,000 acres of grapes. Ad- 
jacent to this main body are several smaller bodies about the 
neighboring lakes. Thus, at the head of Canandaigua Lake 
and on its shores are about 2500 acres ; near Seneca and be- 
tween Seneca and Cayuga Lakes there are probably 1500 acres 
more. In a few specially favored places on other of these Cen- 
tral Lakes, there are possibly 1000 acres, making all told for 
this region, about 20,000 acres. Again it is climate that sets 
the seal of approval on the region for viticulture. In addition 
to the benefits of deep bodies of water, high and sloping 
lands cause the frosts to cease early in the spring and hold 
them in abeyance in the autumn, giving an exceptionally long 
season. 

Champagne-making began here about 1860 ; at present there 
are a score or more manufacturers of champagne, wine and 
brandy, the output being annually about .3,000,000 gallons of 
wine and 2,000,000 bottles of champagne. Recently the 
manufacture of grape-juice has begun and the industry is now 
flourishing. 

Minor grnpr regions. 

Viticulture is commercially important in several other regions 
than those outlined. Thus, in the \alley of the Hud.son River, 
grapes have been grown commercially for nearly a hundred 



22 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

years, the industry reaching its height between 1880 and 1890, 
when there were 13,000 acres under cultivation. For some 
years, however, grape-growing along the Hudson has been on 
the decline. Another region in which viticulture reaches con- 
siderable magnitude is in several islands in Lake Erie near 
Sandusky, Ohio, the product going largely for the manufacture 
of wine. At one time grapes were grown commercially on the 
banks of the Ohio River about Cincinnati and westward into 
Indiana. The industry here, however, is a thing of the past. 
Another region in which grape-growing was once of prime 
importance but now lags has its center at Hermann, Missouri. 
The newest grape-producing area worthy of note is in south- 
western Michigan about the towns of Lawton and Paw Paw. 
A small but very prosperous grape-growing region has its 
center at Egg Harbor, New Jersey. Ives is the mainstay 
among varieties in this region. In the southern states, 
IVIuscadine grapes are grown in a small w^ay in every part 
of the cotton-belt and varieties of other native species are 
to be found in home vineyards in the upland regions, but 
nowhere in the South can it be said that grape-growing is 
a commercial industry. 

The Determinants of Grape Regions 

Climate, soil, site, the surface features of the land, insects, 
fungi and commercial geography are the chief factors that de- 
termine regions for money-making in grape-growing. This 
has been made plain in the foregoing discussion of grape regions, 
but the several factors must be taken up in greater detail. To 
bound the regions is of less importance than to understand why 
they exist — less needful to remember, more needful to under- 
stand. From what has been said, the reader has no doubt al- 
ready concluded that successful grape-growing is in largest 
measure due to kindliness in climate. 



GRAPE REGIOXS A\U THEIR DETERMINANTS 23 

Clinutte 

Under tlu> assimiptioii, then, lluit climate, of all factors, is 
clii(>f in i)layin^ providence to the grape, let us examine some- 
what critically the relations of climate to grape-growing. 
When analyzed, the essentials of climate, as it governs grape- 
growing, are found to be six : first, length of season ; second, 
seasonal sum of heat ; third, amount of humidity in summer 
weather; fourth, dates of spring and autumn frosts; fifth, 
winter temperature; sixth, air currents. 

Length of season. 

To reach true perfection, each grape variety has a length of 
season of its own. With each, if it is grown in too low a lati- 
tude, the vine is uninterrupted in growth ; its leaves tend to 
become evergreen ; and not infrequently it produces at the 
same time blossoms, green fruits and ripe fruits. This is, of 
course, the extreme to which grapes pass in the far South. 
Again, many northern varieties fail where southern grapes 
succeed because the fruits pass too rapidly from maturity to 
decay. On the other hand, very often southern grapes are 
hardy in vine in the North, but the season is not sufficiently 
long for the fruit to mature and to acquire sufficient sugar to 
give them good keeping quality, properly to pass through 
vinous fermentation, or even to make a good unfermented 
grape-juice. In the uneven topography of this continent, it is 
not possible to state the range in latitude in which grapes can 
be cultivated to advantage, for latitude is often set aside by 
altitude. Thus, isothermal lines, or lines of equal temperature, 
are much curved in America and do not at all coincide with the 
parallels of latitude. 

Other factors, of course, than lengtli of season enter into the 
ripening of grapes. The daily range in temperature, not al- 
ways dependent on latitude, aflfects ripening. Cool nights may 



24 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

offset warm days and delay ripening. Certainly rains, fogs 
and humid air delay matm"ity. The bottom heat of loose, 
warm, dry gravelly or stony soils hastens maturity. Sunshine 
secured by a sunny aspect or shelter hastens maturity. 

The seasonal sum of heat. 

Successful cultivation of the grape depends on a sufficient 
amount of heat during the summer season. The theory is 
that buds of the grape commence to start when the mean daily 
temperature reaches a certain height, and that the sum of the 
mean daily temperature must reach a certain amount before 
grapes ripen. Manifestly, this sum must vary much with dif- 
ferent varieties, low for the earliest sorts, high for the latest. 
There have been many observations as to the temperatures 
at which buds of the grape start growth, so that it is now 
known that the temperature varies in accordance with lo- 
cality and degree of maturity. Roughly speaking, grape 
buds start at temperatures from 50° to 00° F. The seasonal 
sum of heat for ripening is probably 1600 to 2400 units. A 
variety ought not to be planted, therefore, in a region in 
which the average seasonal sum of heat is not sufficiently 
high. The seasonal sum of heat can be determined for a 
locality from data published by the United States Weather 
Bureau ; and by comparing with the sum of heat units in 
localities where a variety is known to thrive, the grape- 
grower can determine whether there is suflficient heat for 
any particular variety. 

The grape seldom suffers from hot weather in a grape region. 
The fruit is sometimes scalded in the full blaze of a hot sun, 
but the ample foliage of the vine usually furnishes protection 
against a burning sun. At maturing time, the heat of an un- 
clouded sun, if the air circulates freely, insures a finely finished 
product. Deep planting helps to offset the harmful influences 
of warm climates. 



GRAPE REGIONS A\D THEIR DETERMINANTS 25 

Humidity of summer weather . 

The grape is very sensitive to moisture conditions, and 
grows best in regions where the summer rainfall is compara- 
tively light. A damp and cloudy summer brings disaster 
to the vineyard in several ways ; as small growth of vine, 
small set of fruit, a crop of poor quality, and the development 
of the several fungous diseases. Although the grape stands 
drought, a superfluity of moisture in the soil may do little 
harm, as is shown in irrigated vineyards, but a humid air 
is fatal to success especially if the air is both warm and wet. 
]\[oist weather during the time of maturity is particularly 
disastrous to the grape, as are frequent fogs. Cold wet 
weather in blooming time is the grape-grower's vernal bane, 
since it most effectually prevents the setting of fruit. It 
may be laid down as a rule that the grape lives by sunlight, 
warmth and air — it often thrives on the desert's edge. These 
considerations make it manifest that the monthly and sea- 
sonal means of precipitation must be considered in selecting 
a locality to grow grapes. 

Spring and autumn frosts. 

The average date at which the last killing frost occurs in the 
spring often determines the limit in latitude at which the grape 
can be grown. Even in the most favored grape region of the 
continent, killing frosts occasionally destroy the grape crop, and 
there are few seasons in which frost does not take some toll. 
Thus on May 7, 1910, frost all but ruined the crop of wine- and 
table-grapes in the great grape region of northern ralifornia 
where frosts are seldom expected in May. Little or nothing 
can be done to protect grapes from frost. Windbreaks as 
often favor the frost as the vine, and smudging or heating 
the vineyards is too expensive to be practical. In growing 
grapes, therefore, the commonly recognized precaution of 



26 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

selecting a site near water, on slopes or in a warm thermal belt 
must be exercised. 

The limits of grape culture are also determined by early 
autumn frosts. The grape stands two or three degrees of 
frost, but anything lower usually destroys the crop. Here, 
again, the only precaution is to take pains in selecting the site. 

The u^e of weather data and dates of life events of the grape. 

These considerations of length of season, humidity and 
spring and fall frosts make it plain that the grape-grower must 
synchronize these phases of climate with the life events of the 
grape. In particular, he must study weather data in relation 
to the blooming and ripening of grapes. Usually, the neces- 
sary weather data may be secured from the nearest local weather 
bureau, while the date of blooming and ripening may be ob- 
tained from the state experiment stations in the states where 
the grape is an important crop. 

Whiter temperature. 

Varieties of native grapes are seldom injured in America by 
winter-killing, since they are usually planted in climates in 
which wild grapes withstand winter conditions. Native vari- 
eties follow the rule that plant and climate are truly congenial 
in regions in which the plant thrives without the aid of man. 
A few varieties of native grapes fare badly in the winter's cold 
of northern grape regions, and the tender Vinifera vine is at 
the mercy of the winter wherever the mercury goes below zero. 
In cold climates, therefore, care must be exercised in selecting 
hardy varieties and in following careful cultural methods with 
the tender sorts. If other climatic conditions are favorable, 
however, winter-killing is not an unsurmountable difficulty, 
since the grape is easily protected from cold, so easily that the 
tender Viniferas may be grown in the cold North with winter 
protection. 



GRAPE REGIOXS AM) THEIR DETERMl .\ A.\TS 27 

Air riirrnifs. 

(^urronts of air are of l)iit local importance in jjrowitijj: tree- 
fruits, hut are of general and vital importance in gro\vin<,' the 
grape. The direction, force and frequency of prevailing winds 
are often controlling factors in the suppression of fungous dis- 
eases of the grajie. and the i)resence of fungi often means suc- 
cess or failure in regions in which the grape is j)lanted. 
Winds are beneficial, too, when they bring warm air or dry 
air, and when they keep frosty air in motion. The air must 
move in all grape regions, whether from caiion, mountain, 
lake or sea. Sunlight, warmth, and air in motion are life to 
the grape. Sometimes winds may be detrimental ; as when 
too cold, too blustering, or when they bring hail, the latter 
being about the most disastrous of all natural calamities. 
Windbreaks are of small value and are often worse than use- 
less. Having planted his vineyard, the grape-grower must 
take the winds as they blow. 

Soils for grapes 

A prime requisite for a vineyard being earth in which \'ines 
will grow, successful grape-growing is eminently dependent on 
the selection of soil. Many mistakes are made in the great 
grape regions in planting on unsuitable soils, the planter going 
on the assumption that any soil in a grape region should be good 
enough for the graj)e. But the crust of the earth in grape 
regions is not all grape soil. In Xew York, for example, much 
of the land in the three grape regions is better fitted for pro- 
ducing crops for the mason or road-mender than for the grape- 
grower. Other soils in these regions are fit for vineyards only 
when tiled, and tiling does not make all wet land fit for tilling. 
Heavy, clammy clays, light sands, soils parched with thirst, thin 
or hungry soils — on all of these the grower may plant but 
will seldom harvest. 



28 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

The ideal soil. 

Grapes may be well grown in a wide range of soils if the land 
is well drained, open to air and if it holds heat. But without 
these essentials, whatever the soil, all subsequent treatment 
fails to produce a good vineyard. Generally speaking, the 
grape grows best in a light, free-working, gravelly loam, but 
there are many good vineyards in gravelly or stony clays, 
gravel or stone to furnish drainage, let in the air and to hold 
heat. Contrary to general belief, the grape seldom thrives in 
very sandy soils unless there is a fair admixture of clay, con- 
siderable decomposing vegetable matter and a clay subsoil. 
The latter, however, must not come too close to the surface. 
Some of the best vineyard lands in the country are very stony, 
the stones hindering only in making the land difficult to till. 
Nearly all grapes require a friable soil, compactness being a 
serious defect. Virgil, writing in Christ's time, gave good ad- 
vice as to soil for the vine : 

"A free loose earth is what the vines demand, 
Where wind and frost have help'd the lab'rer's hand, 
And sturdy- peasants deep have stirr'd the land." 

Cold, churlish, sticky or clammy clays are never to the liking 
of the grape. 

Great fertility is not necessary in grape lands. Indeed, the 
grape is conspicuous among cultivated plants for ability to 
nourish itself where the food supply is scant. Soils naturally 
too rich produce an overgrowth of vine, the season's wood does 
not mature, the crop does not set, and the grapes lack sugar, 
size, color and flavor. Good physical condition and warmth 
in a well-watered, well-aired soil enable the grape to search 
far and wide for its food. 

Drainage. 

Xo cultivated grape endures a wet soil ; all demand drainage. 
A few sorts may thrive for a time in moist, heavy land, but more 



ORAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 29 

often they do not li\e tliouo;!! tlioy may lin<,'«M-. The water- 
tal)k' sliouKl hv at least two tVot I'roni the surt'aee. ll' hy chance 
this comes naturally, so much the better, but otherwise the 
land must be tile-drained. Sloping land is by no means always 
well drained, many hillsides having a subsoil so impervious or 
so retenti\e of moisture that under-drainage is a necessity. 
The texture of the land is usually improved so greatly by good 
drainage that the grower has little need to rely on the clemency 
of the season in carrying on vineyard cultivation in well-drained 
land. 

Soil adaptations. 

In tlie refinement of viticulture, grape-growers find that 
particular varieties grow best in a particular soil, the likes and 
dislikes being determined only by trial, for the peculiarities 
which adapt a soil to a variety are not analyzable. Some 
varieties, on theotlier hand, the Concord being a good example, 
grow fruitfully in a great variety of soils. Each of the several 
species with their varieties has quite distinct adaptations to 
soils. This is taken advantage of in planting varieties on un- 
congenial soils after they have been grafted on a vine which 
finds itself at home in the particular soil. Much has been ac- 
complished in growing varieties on uncongenial soils by con- 
sorting them with other stocks, an operation which has brought 
forth volumes of discussion as to the adaptabilities of cions to 
stocks and stocks to soils, subjects to receive attention on a 
later page. 

Insects and fungi 

The profitable grape regions of the country have all been es- 
tablished in regions comparatively free from grape insects and 
fungi. If pests came later in considerable numbers, the indus- 
try, in the old days, perished. Here and there in the agricul- 
tural regions of the country may be found a sorry company of 



30 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

halt and maimed vines, remnants of once flourishing vineyards, 
brought to their miserable condition by some scourge of insects 
or fungi. The advent of spraying and of better knowledge of 
the habits of the pests has greatly lessened the importance of 
parasites as a factor in determining the value of a region for 
grape-growing ; but even in the light of the new knowledge, it 
is not wise to go against Nature in regions where pests are 
strongly intrenched. 

Commercial factors 

The dominant factors that lead to the planting of large areas 
to any one fruit are often economic ones ; as transportation, 
markets, labor, facilities for making by-products, and oppor- 
tunity to join in buying and selling organizations. All of 
these factors play an important part in determining the bounds 
of grape regions, but a lesser part than in the establishment 
of large areas of other fruits, for the reason that the grape is 
so largely grown for raisins, wine, champagne and grape-juice, 
products condensed in form, made with little labor, easily trans- 
ported, which keep long and find ready market at any time. 
Again, where natural conditions are favorable for grape-growing, 
the crop comes almost as a gift from Nature ; whereas, if the 
grower must breast the blows of unfavorable natural circum- 
stances, no matter how favorable the economic factors may be, 
the vineyard is seldom profitable. Natural factors, therefore, 
outweigh economic ones in grape-growing, but the latter must 
be considered in seeking a site for a vineyard, a task discussed 
under several heads to follow. 

Accessibility to markets. 

Markets ought to be accessible in commercial grape-growing. 
A location in which there is a good local market, and at the 
same time ample facilities for shipping to distant markets, is 



aRAl'K REUIOXS AM) TIJKlJi DETKILM I X AXTS 31 

desirable. If tlu>re are also opj)()rtuiiities to dispose of any 
surplus to makers t)f raisins, wine or grape-juiee, the grower 
has well-nigh attained the ideal. Further to be desired are 
good roads, short hauls, quiek transportation, reasonable freight 
rates, refrigerator serviee and cooperative agencies. The more 
of these advantages a grower has at his disposal, the less likely 
he is to fail in commercial competition. 

General \ersus local markets. 

The grower must be reminded rather than informed that he 
must decide in locating his vineyard whether he will grow for 
distant markets, for manufacturing into grape products, or for 
local markets. Determination to grow grapes once made, 
subsequent procedure at every step depends on the disposition 
to be made of the product. Summarized, the differences in 
growing grapes for the two markets are : For the general mar- 
ket : the acreage should be large ; the market may be distant ; 
the varieties few ; the cost of production low ; sales large and 
prices low ; the dealings are with middlemen ; and extensive 
culture is practiced. For the local market : the acreage may be 
small ; the market must be near and prices must be high ; the 
sales are direct to the consumer ; there must be succession in 
ripening ; and intensive culture is practiced. For the general 
market, the vineyard is the unit; for the local market, the 
variety should be the unit. In this discussion, however, "large 
acreage" and "extensive culture" set against "small acreage" 
and "intensive culture" may mislead. This is a case in which 
a large endeavor may be a small endeavor, and a small en- 
deavor a large one ; or, in which it may be well to take the ad- 
vice of Virgil, who advised Roman vineyardists, " Praise great 
estates; farm a small one." 

The grape-growing of the times tends more and more to 
growing for general markets. The grower plants to skim a 
comparatively small return from a large area. This division 



32 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

of grape-growing is now well developed in America. Intensive 
grape-growing for local markets is not well developed. There 
are, however, many opportunities in America for easy triumphs 
in fruit-growing in the planting of vineyards for local markets. 
No other fruit responds to fine art in culture so well as the 
grape. Given choicely good varieties and a finely finished 
product, and the grower may have almost what he desires for 
the produce of his skill. With the grape, too, palm of merit 
goes with skill in culture ; among all who grow plants, only 
the florist can rival the viticulturist in guiding the develop- 
ment of a plant to a special end. In cultivating, fertilizing, 
training, grafting, pruning, spraying, in every cultural oper- 
ation, the grape-grower has opportunities to sell his skill not 
given in so high degree to the grower of other fruits. 

Labor. 

A great advantage in the congregation of vineyardists in 
grape regions is found when labor must be obtained. Skilled 
labor is required to cultivate the vine, and such labor can be 
freely secured only in centers of viticulture. Grape-growing 
is a specialists' business, and it takes more than a day or a 
season to make a vine-dresser out of a farmer, gardener or an 
orchardist. Expert labor is most easily obtained and is of best 
quality where grapes abound . Common labor must be somewhat 
abundant, also, in good vineyard locations, for such rush tasks 
as tying and picking. In these two operations, women, chil- 
dren or other unskilled labor may be employed to advantage. 
The grape harvest must often be hurried, and to keep it in full 
swing a near-by city from which to draw pickers is a great 
asset. 

Vineyard sites. 

Within a grape region, the site is important in determining 
where to plant. The site is the local position of the vineyard. 



GRAPE RKCIUXS AM) TlIKUi DKTEH.M 1 \' ANTS 33 

Sites faiiiiot be staiulanli/cd, and tlu-reforc no two are alike. 
The cardinal natural lactors to l)e secured in a site are warnitli, 
sun, air and Ireedoni Iroin I'ro^t. Tliese factors liaxc heen dis- 
cussed in a jicneral ^\ay under the climate (»t" tjrape re|,dons, hut 
one needs to ])articulari/,e a little more closely to ascertain how 
they atieet individual vineyards. Warmth, sun, air and frost- 
lessness are best secured by proximity to water, high land and 
proper exposure. 

Proximity to water. 

The favorable influences of w'ater are well illustrated in the 
grape regions of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Canada. 
All of the grape districts in these regions are bounded on one 
or more sides by water. The equalizing effects of large bodies 
of water on temperature, warmer winter and cooler summer, 
are so well known as scarcely to need comment. Hardly less 
important than the effects of water on temperature are the 
off-shore breezes of night and the in-shore breezes of day which 
blow on large bodies of water. These keep the air of the vine- 
yard in constant motion and so prevent frosts hi spring and 
autumn, and also dry foliage and fruit so that spores of fungi 
have difficulty in finding foothold. But if water brings fogs, 
dews and humidity, as does the Pacific, grapes must be planted 
inland ; otherwise leaf, bloom and fruit are born in the blight 
of fungi. The benign influences of water are felt in the eastern 
grape regions at distances of one to four miles, seldom farther. 
These narrow belts about the eastern waters are bounded on 
the landward side by high bluff's over which many showers fail 
to pass and which protect the belts below from heavy dews. 
Where the background of bluffs in these regions sinks to level 
land, vineyards cease. 

Vineyards are usually some distance above the water, the 
range in altitude running from fifty to five hundred feet. Where 
the altitude is much higher, immunity to frosts and winter 

D 



34 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

freezing ceases, for the reason that the atmosphere is rarer and 
drier so that heat radiates rapidly from the land. As the 
height increases, also, the revels of the wind play havoc with 
the vines. Yet, one is often surprised to find good vineyards 
at the level of the lakes or, on the other hand, crowning high 
hills. Altitude in grape-growing must, therefore, be deter- 
mined by experiment. We know very little of the formation 
of the thermal belts on high land so favorable to the grape. 

The lay of the land. 

We associate the grape with rugged land ; as the vines on 
the banks of the Rhine, the rolling lands of Burgundy, the 
slopes of Vesuvius and 01^'mpus, the high hills of jNIadeira, the 
cloud-capped mountains of Teneriffe, mountain slopes in 
California and the escarpments of grape regions in eastern 
America. These examples prove how well adapted rolling 
lands, inclined plains and even steep and rocky hillsides are to 
the culture of the vine. Virgil long ago wrote, "Bacchus is 
partial to broad, sunny hills." Yet rolling lands are not es- 
sential to the culture of the grape, for in Europe and America 
very good grapes are grown on unsheltered plains, provided 
the land has an elevation on one or more boundaries above the 
surrounding country. If the conditions of soil and climate 
which the grape requires can be found on level land or moder- 
ate slopes, such situations are much better than steep decliv- 
ities, since on these the cost of all vineyard operations is greater 
and heavy rains erode the soil. The soil on hills, too, is often 
scant and niggardly. Level land, however, must not be shut 
in on all sides by higher land as untimely frost will often 
lay waste vines in such a situation. 

Exposures. 

The exposure, or the slope of the land toward a point of the 
compass, is important in choosing a site for the vineyard, al- 



GRAPE REGIOXS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 35 

tlu)u*ili the value of particular exjiosures is ofteu exagj^erated. 
Let it be renienihered that <;()0(1 graj)es may l)e ^rowu in vine- 
yards exposed to any point of the eoini)ass, but that slight ad- 
^■antaf];es may sometimes come, depending:; on the particular 
environment of the i)lantation, and then solve the j^roblem ac- 
cording to conditions. The following are theories as to exposure : 
A southern exposure is warmer and hence earlier than a north- 
ern, and is, therefore, the best slope for early grapes as well as 
for very late ones liable to be caught by frost. Northward 
and westward slopes retard the leafing and blooming period, 
thus often enabling the grape to escape untimely spring frosts ; 
though to plant on such slopes may be robbing Peter to pay 
Paul, as what is gained in retardation in spring may be lost in 
the fall with the result that the vines may be caught by frost 
and may fail to ripen their crop. Frost damage is usually 
greatest on a bold eastern slope, and vines suffer most in win- 
ter freezes on this exposure, since the direct rays of the rising 
sun strike the frozen plants so that they are more injured than 
otherwise by rapid thawing. In locations near bodies of water, 
the best slope is toward the water, regardless of direction. 
The exposure may sometimes be selected to advantage with 
reference to the prevailing winds. 



CHAPTER III 

PROPAGATION 

The grape commends itself to commercial and amateur 
growers alike by its ease of propagation. The vines of all 
species may be propagated from seed, and all but one of the 
several cultivated species may be grown readily from cuttings 
or layers. All yield to grafting of one kind or another. Seeds 
are planted only to produce new varieties. At one time stocks 
were grown from seed, but this practice has fallen into dis- 
repute because of the great variations in the seedlings. Varie- 
ties on their own roots and stocks are for most part propagated 
from cuttings. In the production of stocks, the viticulturist 
sets the orchardist a good example, for there can be no question 
that all tree-fruits suffer from being grown on seedling stocks. 
The grape is a N'igorous, self-assertive plant and once it is started, 
whether from seeds, cuttings or layers, seldom fails to grow. 

Seedlings 

Growing seedling grapes is the simplest of operations. The 
seeds are taken from the grapes at harvest time, after which 
they must pass through a resting period of a few months. At 
once or in a month or two, the seeds should be stratified in moist 
sand and stored in a cold place until spring, when they may be 
sown in flats or in the open ground ; or seed may be sown in a 
well-prepared piece of garden land in the autumn. When 
planted in the open, autumn or spring, the seeds are put in at 
the depth of an inch, an inch or two apart and in rows conven- 
ient for cultivation. Subsequent care consists of cultivation 

36 



PROP AC, AT ION 37 

if the seed are sown in pinkMi rows, and in priekini; out when 
true leaves appear if planted in flats. In ground that erusts, 
an expedient is to mix grape seefl with apple seefl ; the apple 
seedlings, being more vigorous, break the erust and act as 
nurse plants to the more tender grapes. Sometimes it is help- 
ful to the young plants to muleh the ground lightly with lawn 
elippings or moss. Grape seedlings grow rapidly, often making 
from two to three feet of wood in a season. 

The young plants are thinned or set to stand four or five 
inches apart in the nursery row. At the end of the first season, 
all plants are cut back severely and almost entirely covered 
with earth by plowing up to the row on both sides. This 
earth, of course, is leveled the following spring. If the seasons 
are propitious and all goes well, the seedlings are ready for the 
vineyard at the end of the second season, but if for any reason 
they have fared badly during their first two years, it is much 
better to give them a third season in the nursery. Seedling 
vines are seldom as vigorous as those from cuttings, and un- 
usual care must be taken in setting in the vineyard, though 
the operation is essentially the same as that to be described for 
vines from cuttings. The third season the vines are kept to 
a single shoot and are pinched back when the canes reach a 
length of five or six feet. In the autumn, they are pruned 
back to two or three feet. In the spring of the fourth season, 
the trellis is put up and a few fruits may be allowed to ripen. 

The vines of promise may now be selected. The plants, 
however, must fruit twice or oftener before it can be told 
whether hopes are consummated or must be deferred. Grow- 
ing seedlings for new varieties is a game full of chances in which, 
while there ma>' be little immediate or individual gain, there 
is much pleasure. It is hardly too much to say that the grape 
industry of eastern America, with its 300,000 acres and 1500 
\arieties, betokens the good that has come from growing seed- 
ling grapes. 



S8 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Dormant Cuttings 

Vines for vineyards, with the exception of varieties of Rotiin- 
difoHa, are propagated from cuttings of hard wood taken from 
the season's canes when the vines are pruned. The inactive 
buds in these cuttings may be brought into active growth, 
and roots induced to grow from the cut surfaces by various 
means. By this miracle of Nature, an infinite number of 
plants, in an endless procession, may be propagated from the 
product of a single seed, each plant complete in its heredity and 
differing from its fellows only in accordance with environment. 

Time to make cuttings. 

A good cutting should have a protective callus over the cut 
and this requires time, so that the sooner cuttings are made 
after the wood becomes thoroughly dormant the better. Be- 
sides, the cutting should use its stored food material for the 
formation of adventitious roots rather than have it pass into 
buds, as it quickly does late in the dormant season when buds 
are about to open. If cuttings must be made late in the season, 
transplanting must be delayed as long as possible, and the 
cuttings be set in a northerly aspect to prevent the premature 
development of the buds. However, the grape responds sur- 
prisingly well to the call of Nature in forming roots, and great 
importance need not be attached to the time at which the cut- 
tings are made. 

Selecting cutting wood. 

Cuttings are made from one-year-old wood ; that is, canes 
produced during the summer are taken for cuttings in the fall. 
Immature canes and those with soft, spongy wood ought not 
to be used. Strong vigorous canes should be given preference 
over weak growth, but most nurserymen maintain that very 
large canes do not make as good cuttings as do those of medium 



PROiwoArioN 39 

size, the ()l)jecti()M to hirire size l)einfi; that the eiittin^s do not 
root as well. Shoit-jointed wood is hetter than loii;;-joiiit('(l. 
Cuttings from \ines weakened hy insects and t'nnui are Haljle 
to he weai\, soft, immature and poorly stored with food. The 
wood should he smooth and straight. 

Mailing the cutting. 

Grape cuttings vary in length from four inclies to two feet, 
the length depending on the climate and the soil of the nursery 
and the species and variety. The liotter and drier the climate 
and the lighter the soil, the longer the cutting needs to be. 
Six to nine inches, however, is the usual length in the climate 
of eastern America, while on the Pacific slope the length varies 
from eight to fifteen inches. For convenience in handling, 
all cuttings should be approximately of the same length, to 
insure which some kind of simple gauge is needed, ^'arious 
gauges are used, as marks cut in the working table, a stick of 
the required length, or a cutting-box. 

In making the cuttings, a slanting cut is made close below 
the lowest bud, while about an inch of wood is left above the 
upper bud. When possible, a heel of old wood is left at the 
lower end ; or, still better, a whorl of buds, as roots usually 
start from each bud. The finished cuttings are tied in bundles, 
all butts one way, and are then ready to be heeled-in. This is 
done by burying in trenches, butts up, and covering with a few 
inches of soil. It is important to invert the cuttings in trench- 
ing, since otherwise the tops often start to grow before the butts 
are properly calloused, and it is very essential that the tops 
remain dormant until roots appear to support the new growth. 

Planting the cuttings. 

Cuttings are planted in the nursery in rows wide enough 
apart for cultivation and two or three inches apart in the row. 
Trenches are made with a plow; perpendicular if the cuttings 



40 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 




Fig. 6. Planting cuttings. 



are shorter, and a little slanting if longer than six inches. The 
cuttings are set at a depth which permits the upper buds to 

project above the ground, 
^jy^.>MjuX,.^2^j^j.h.^ " ^g shown in Fig . 6. When 

. '_ _rf ^ - the cuttings in a row are 

placed, two inches of soil 
are put in and pressed 
firmly about the base of 
the cuttings. Then the 
trench is evenly filled 
with earth and the cul- 
tivator follows. Doing 
duty by the young plants 
consists in cultivating 
often during the sum- 
mer to keep the soil moist and mellow. 
The cuttings are planted as soon as the 
ground is warm and dry enough to work. 
To delay planting too long invites injury 
from drought, which almost annually parches 
the land in eastern America. Irrigation 
gives more leeway to planting time in the 
West. When warm sunny weather, accom- 
panied by an occasional shower, predomi- 
nates, the cuttings start growth almost at 
once, as shown in Fig. 7, and by fall, all 
things being propitious, make a growth 
from four to six feet. With the cuttings 
three inches and the rows three feet 
apart, 58,080 vines may be grown to the acre 




Fig. 7. A cutting 
beginning growth. 



Single-eye cuttings. 

New and rare varieties are propagated from single-eye cut- 
tings, thereby doubling the number of plants from the propa- 



PROPAGATION 41 

gating wood. This method gives an opportunity, also, to 
start the work of propagating early in tiie season, sinee single- 
eye cuttings are nearly always rooted by artificial heat. But 
the greatest value of the method is that some \arieties which 
camiot be propagated in any other way readily grow under 
artificial heat from single-eyes. Well-grown vines so propa- 
gated are as good as th(«e grown by any other method, but 
the great disadvantage is that unless much care and skill are 
used, vines from these cuttings are poor and quite worthless. 
It is also a more expensive method than growuig from long 
cuttings out of doors. 

There are several ways of making single-eye cuttings. The 
most common form of the cutting is the single bud with an inch 
of wood above and below, the ends being cut with a slant. 
Some modify this form by cutting away the wood on the side 
opposite the bud, exposing the pith the whole length of the 
cutting. In another form, a square cut is made directly under 
the bud, leaving an inch and a half of wood above. Or this last 
form is modified by making a long sloping cut from the bud to 
the upper end, thereby exposing the maximum amount of 
cambium. Advantages are claimed for each form, but these are 
mostly imaginary, and the cutting may be made to suit the 
fancy of the propagator if a few essentials are obser^•ed. 

Single-eye cuttings are made in the fall and are stored in sand 
until late winter, about February in New York. At this time 
the cuttings are planted horizontally an inch deep in a sand 
propagating bench in a cool greenhouse. If the cuttings are 
not well calloused, they remain one or two weeks in a tempera- 
ture of 40° to 50° without bottom heat, but well-made cuttings 
are calloused and ready to strike root so that brisk bottom 
heat can be applied at once. After six weeks or two months, 
the young plants are read\' to pot off or to transplant in a cold- 
frame or cool greenhouse. If but a few i)lants arc to be grown, 
they may be started in two- or three-inch pots, shifting into 



42 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

larger pots once or twice as growth progresses. In early 
summer, the young plants are set in nursery rows out of doors 
and by fall the young vines should be strong and vigorous. 

Single-eyes are also started in hot-beds, cold-frames and 
even in the open air without the aid of artificial heat. In 
hot-beds and cold-frames, the method is only a modification 
of that described for greenhouses. Out of doors the cuttings 
are given the same conditions under which long cuttings are 
rooted, except that the whole of the short cutting is buried 
an inch deep in the nursery row. 

Herbaceous Cuttings 

Grapes are easily propagated from herbaceous cuttings, 
although since the vines are weak and the method expensive, 
they are seldom used. Green cuttings are usually taken from 
plants forced in greenhouses, but may be taken in summer 
from vineyard vines. A green cutting is usually cut with two 
buds with the leaf at the upper one left on. The cuttings 
are set in propagating beds of sand, or pots of sand, in close 
frames under which there is brisk bottom heat. To prevent 
excessive evaporation, the frames are kept closed and the 
atmosphere warm and moist. As growth progresses, or if 
mildew appears, the frames are more and more ventilated. In 
two to four weeks, the cuttings should have rooted sufficiently 
well to be transplanted to pots. Herbaceous cuttings made 
in the summer must be kept under glass until the following 
spring. 

Layering 

The grape is readily propagated from layers of either green 
or mature wood, the method being certain, convenient and 
producing extra vigorous plants. The drawback is that fewer 
plants can be obtained by layering than from cuttings with a 



PROPAGATION 43 

p\\eu amount of wood. Varieties of some species, however, 
cannot he propagated hy cuttings, and with these layering 
hecomes of supreme importance to the propagator. Nearly 
all varieties of Rotundifolia and some of iEstivalis are best 
grown from layers. So far as is known, all varieties of culti- 
vated species may be grown by layering, and since the method 
is simple and certain and the vines vigorous and easily handled, 
this method is commended to small growers of grapes. 

Dormant wood layering. 

The work of layering mature wood usually begins in the 
spring, but the vines from which the layers are to be taken 
should have received preliminary treatment the preceding sea- 
son. The vines to be layered are severely cut back a year 
or more before the layering is to be done to induce a vigorous 
growth of canes. Strong vigorous canes are laid in a shallow 
trench, two to five inches deep, in which they are fastened with 
wood or wire pegs or staples. The trench is then partly filled 
with fine, moist, mellow earth which is firmly packed about 
the cane. Roots strike and shoots spring from each joint. 
When the young plants are well above ground, the trench is 
completely filled, and then, or a little later, the young plants 
are staked to keep them out of the way of the cultivator. The 
following fall the young vines are ready to transplant. 

The essentials of layering have been given, but a number of 
non-essentials may be helpful under some conditions. Thus, 
dormant wood may be layered in the fall, in which case the 
cane is usually notched or ringed at the joint to induce the 
formation of roots. The less the number of joints covered, 
the stronger the young vines, so that while the number is usu- 
ally five, six or more extra vigorous plants may be obtained 
by covering only one or two joints. In propagating Rotun- 
difolia grapes, it is expected that lateral branches will make 
the tops of the new plants. These, at the time of layering, are 



44 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

cut back to eight or ten inches, all on the same side of the vine, 
and are not left closer together than twelve inches. In nursery 
practice, Rotundifolia vines are trained along the ground for 
layering. Vines on arbors, in greenhouses, or on sides of 
buildings are easily layered in boxes or pots of soil. Plants 
grown from layers are not as conveniently handled as those 
from cuttings. 

Green wood layering. 

Layered plants from green wood are sometimes grown to 
multiply quickly new or rare varieties. The work is accom- 
plished in midsummer by bending down and covering shoots 
of the present season's growth. Strong plants are seldom 
obtained from summer-layering and it is never safe to attempt 
to grow more than one or two plants from a shoot. The most 
forceful culture possible must be given summer-layered plants 
after the separation from the parent vine. It is very generally 
agreed that plants from summer-layers not only do not give 
good plants, but that the parent vine is injured in taking an 
offspring from it in this way. 

Layering to fill vaxiancies in the vineyard. 

There is sure to be an occasional gap even in the best vine- 
yard. Young plants set in vacancies must compete with 
neighboring full-grown vines, and often in a bit of land so un- 
favorable that it may have been the cause of the demise of 
the original occupant, lender these circumstances, the new- 
comer stands a poor chance for life. A plant introduced by 
layering a strong cane from a nearby vine has little difficulty 
in establishing itself on its own roots, after which it can be 
separated from the parent. Such layering is best done by 
taking hi early spring a strong, unpruned cane from an ad- 
joining plant in the same row and covering an end joint six 
inches deep in the vacant place, but leaving sufficient wood on 



PROPAGATION 45 

the end of the cane to turn up perpendicularly out of the soil. 
This free end heconics the new {)lant and by tiie following fall 
or spring may be separated from its j)arent. Xot infrequently 
the young plant bears fruit the second season on its own roots. 
This method is of especial value in small plantations, whereby 
the trouble of ordering one or two plants is avoided and the 
advantage of early fruiting is obtained. 

Grafting 

Since grafting grapes is intimately connected with stocks, 
the growing of which is a modern practice, grafting is thought 
of as a new process in growing this fruit. Quite to the contrary, 
it is an old practice. Cato, the sturdy old Roman grape-grower 
who lived nearly two hundred years before Christ, speaks of 
grafting grapes, although Theophrastus, the Greek philosopher, 
wrote a hundred years before " the vine cannot be grafted upon 
itself." However, until it became necessary to grow' \'inifera 
grapes on resistant stocks to avoid the ravages of phylloxera, 
grafting the grape w^as not at all common among vineyardists 
and is not now except where vines susceptible to phylloxera 
must be grown in consort with roots resistant to this insect, or 
to modify the vigor of the top by a stock more vigorous or less 
vigorous. For these two purposes, grafting is now in some 
grape regions one of the most important vineyard operations. 

In grafting the grape, there is a time and a way, not so par- 
ticular as many believe, but rather more particular than in 
grafting most other fruits. If the essentials of grafting are 
kept in mind, one has considerable choice of details. Graft- 
ing consists in detaching and inserting one or several buds of a 
mother plant on another plant of the same or a similar kind ; 
the bud stock is the cion, the rooted plant is the stock. The 
essentials may be set forth in three statements : First, the 
prime essential is that the cambium layers, the healing tissue 



46 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



lying between the bark and wood, meet in the cion and stock ; 
second, that method of grafting is best in which the cut tissues 
heal most rapidly and most completely; third, the greater 
the amount of cambium contact, as compared with the whole 
cut surface, the more rapidly and completely the wounds will 
heal. Out of a great many, the following are a few of the 
simplest methods in use in grafting the grape, any one of which 
may be modified more or less as occasion calls. 

Vineyard grafting in eastern America. 

In eastern America, the growing vine is usually grafted. 
At the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the opera- 
tion is very successfully performed on old vines as follows : 
Preparatory to grafting, the earth is removed from around the 

stock to a depth of two or 
three inches. The vines are 
then decapitated at the sur- 
face of the ground and at 
right angles with the axis 
of the stock. If the grain 
is straight, the cleft can be 
made by splitting with a 
chisel, but more often it will 
have to be done with a thin-bladed saw through the center of 
the stock for at least two inches. The cion is cut with two 
buds, the wedge being started at the lower bud. The cleft 
in the stock is then opened, and the cion inserted so that the 
cambium of stock and cion are in intimate contact. If the 
stock is large, two cions are used. The several operations in 
grafting are shown in Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11. Grafting wax is 
unnecessary, in fact is often worse than useless, and if the 
stock is large the graft is not even tied. Raffia is used to tie 
the graft in young vines. It suffices to mound the graft to 
the top of the cion with earth, for the purposes of protec- 




Cutting off the trunk. 



PROl'ACATION 



47 




Fig. 9. Cutting the cleft. 



tion and to keep tlie graft moist. Two or three times 
during the summer, sprouts coming from the stociv or roots 
from the cion should be removed. 
A method used with fair success 
at the New York Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station with young vines 
is to plant one-year-old stocks in 
the nursery row as soon as the 
ground can be worked in the spring. 
Just as the vines start in growth, 
these are cut off at the surface of 
the ground and whip- or cleft-grafted with a two-eye cion. The 
graft is tied with raffia, after which it is all but covered with 

a mound of soil. This is a case in 
which the work must be done at the 
accepted time, as it is fatal to delay. 
R. D. Anthony describes another 
method as follows:^ "A method 
which a Pennsylvania grower of 
^'iniferas has found very satisfactory 
is to root the Vinifera cuttings, and 
grow them one year on their own 
roots ; then the vine 
which is to be used 
as a stock is planted in the vineyard and the 
rooted cutting planted beside it so that the 
shoots from the two may be brought in con- 
tact with each other. In June when the plants 
are in full growth, two vigorous shoots (one -•'>i«i?r^;!^/'^Kv 
from each vine) are brought together and a Fig. ii. The 
cut two or three inches long made in each '^''™'' ^ ^ sta . 
parallel to the length of the cane removing from one-third 
to one-half of the thickness of the shoot. These flat surfaces 
1 Anthony, R. D. .V. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 632: 88. 1917. 




Fig. 10. 



Inserting the cion. 



48 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

exposed by the cuts are then brought into contact with the 
cambium tissues touching and are tied in place. The tops are 
checked somewhat by breaking off some of the growth. The 
following spring the Mnifera roots are cut off below the graft 
and the top of the stock above the graft is removed." 

In the subsequent care of these young vines, the grower 
must take time by the forelock and tie the grafts to suitable 
stakes ; otherwise they are liable to be broken off at the union 
by wind or careless workmen. Grafted vineyards must have 
extra good care in all cultural operations, and even with the 
best of care from 5 to 50 per cent of the grafts will fail or grow 
so poorly as to make regrafting necessary, this being the most 
unfavorable circumstance of field grafting. Regrafting is 
done one joint lower than the first operation to avoid dead 
wood ; this brings the union below the surface of the ground, 
and the vineyardist must expect many cion roots to try his 
patience. 

Vineyard grafting on the Pacific slope. 

Vineyard grafting, according to Bioletti,^ was formerly the 
commonest method of starting resistant vineyards in Cali- 
fornia. After stating that it is best whenever possible to plant 
good cuttings rather than roots, and that the grafting should 
usually be done the year after planting, Bioletti gives the 
following directions for grafting : ^ 

"Wherever possible the vines should be grafted at or above 
the surface of the ground. In many cases, however, it will 
be necessary to go below the surface to find a smooth, suitable 
part of the stock where grafting is possible. 

" The kind of graft to use will depend on the size of the stock. 
For stocks up to f inch in diameter the methods of tongue and 
wire grafting already described are the best. For larger vines 

1 Bioletti, Frederic T. Calif. Exp. Sta., Bui. 180: 135. 1906. 

2 Ibid., 136-138. 




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vUlP ^ 


Pm^^^R 


mm^ 


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Platk lil. — Cover-('r()i)s. i^i}, cow-horn turnii)s; hottont, rye. 



PROPAGATION 49 

up to f incli a modification of the ordinary tongue graft is the 
best. If the tongue graft were made in the usual way with 
stocks of this size, it would he necessary to use excessively 
hirge scions, which is un(U'sirahIe, or to have the bartcs unite 
only on one side. By cutting the bevel of the stock only part 
way through the vines, it is possible to make a smaller scion 
unite on both sides. For still larger vines, those over f inch 
in diameter, the best graft is the ordinary cleft. 

"No wax or clay should be used on the graft. Anything 
which completely excludes the air prevents the knitting of 
the tissues. A little clay, cloth, or a leaf may be placed over 
the split in the stock when the cleft graft is used, simply to 
keep out the soil. Otherwise there is nothing more suitable 
or more favorable to the formation of a good union that can 
be put around the graft than loose, moist soil. If the soil is 
clayey, stiff or lumpy, it is necessary to surround the union 
with loose soil or sand brought from outside the vineyard. 

'"It will usually be necessary to tie the grafts. A well- 
made cleft graft often holds the scion with sufficient force to 
prevent its displacement and no tying is necessary. Wher- 
ever there is any danger of the graft moving, however, it should 
be tied. There is nothing better for this purpose than or- 
dinary raffia. The raffia should not be bluestoned, as it will 
last long enough without and will be sure to rot in a few weeks, 
and the trouble of cutting it w^ill be avoided. Cotton string 
or anything which will keep the graft in place for a few weeks 
may also be used. 

"As soon as the graft is made and tied, a stake should be 
driven and the union covered -with a little earth. The hilling 
up of the graft may be left for a few hours, except in very hot, 
dry weather. Finally, the whole graft should be covered with 
a broad hill of loose soil 2 inches above the top of the scion. 

" Field grafting should not be commenced as a rule, except 
in the hottest and driest localities, before the middle of INIarch. 



50 MANUAL OP AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Before that there is too much danger that heavy rains may 
keep the soil soaked for several weeks — a condition very 
lmfa^'orable to the formation of good unions. In any case 
the grafting should not be done while the soil is wet. Graft- 
ing may continue as long as the cuttings can be kept dormant. 
It is difficult to graft successfully, however, when the bark of 
the stock becomes loose, as it does soon after the middle of 
April in most localities." 

As in the East, it is necessary in California to remove suckers 
from the roots and roots from the cions once or twice during 
the summer. Suckers should not be allowed to o\'ershade the 
graft, though it is best not to remove them until danger of 
disturbing the graft is past. The grafts should be staked and 
the vines looked after as recommended for eastern conditions. 

Bench grafting. 

The resistant vineyards of France and California are now 
started almost entirely with bench-grafted vines. It has been 
learned in these regions that a grafted vine, to be a permanent 
success, must have the consorting parts perfectly united, and 
that the sooner the grafting is done in the life of stock and cion 
the better the union. Cions of the variety wanted are, there- 
fore, grafted on resistant roots or resistant cuttings in the 
workshop and then planted in the nursery. Bench grafting 
has the advantage over field grafting in time gained and in 
securing a fuller stand of vines. 

Bench grafting really begins with the selection of cuttings, 
since success largely depends on good cuttings of both stock 
and cion. Cuttings are taken from strong healthy vines and 
are of medium size, with short to medium joints. The best 
size is one-third of an inch in diameter, that of stock and cion 
being the same since the two must match exactly. The cutting- 
wood may be taken from the mother vines at any time during 
the dormant season up to two weeks before buds swell in the 



PROPAGATION 



51 



sprinj::, and the cuttings can tlit'ii he made as convenience 
dictates, th()Uf;li nieanwiiile the wood must he kept cool and 
moist, which is best done by covering them with moist but not 
wet soil or sand in a cellar or cool shed. In California, the 
best results are obtained when the grafting is done in Feb- 
ruary or March, though it may be begun earlier and continued 
a month later. 

Preparation of cuttings. 

The stocks are cut into lengths of about ten inches, a gauge 
being used to secure uniform length. The cut at the bottom is 
made through a bud in such a way as to leave the diaphragm. 
The top cut is made as near ten 
inches from the bottom as possi- 
ble, leaving about one and one- 
half inches above the top bud for 
convenience in grafting. The 
stock is then disbudded, taking 
both visible and adventitious 
buds, the latter indicated by 
woody enlargements, to keep 
down the number of suckers. 

The cion should be made with 
but one bud, thereby gaining the 
advantage of luuing every cion 
the same length so that all unions 
are at the same distance below 
the surface of the ground in the 
nursery. The cion is made with 
about two and one-half inches 
of internode below the bud and one-half inch above, a sharp 
knife being the best tool for making the cuts. 

Stock and cion cuttings are now graded to exactly the same di- 
ameters, this being necessary to secure perfection in the unions. 




Fig. 12. Bcnch-grafled cuttings 
of grape, :<howiiig both the cleft- 
graft and the whip-graft. 



52 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Three methods of uniting stock and cion are illustrated in 
Fig. 12. It suffices to grade by the eye into three lots — large, 
small and medium — but some nurserymen prefer to secure 
even greater accuracy by the use of any one of several mechan- 
ical gauges. The methods of uniting stock and cion may be 
described best by quoting Bioletti, from whom most of the 
details already given have been summarized : ^ 

Tongue grafting. 

"When the stocks and scions are prepared and graded the 
grafter takes a box of stocks and a box of the corresponding 
size of scions and unites them. Each is cut at the same angle 
in such a way that when placed together the cut surface of 
one exactly fits and covers the whole of the cut surface of the 
other. The length of cut surface should be from three to four 
times the diameter of the cutting, the shorter cut for the larger 
sizes and the longer for the thinner. This will correspond 
to an angle of from 14.5 to 19.5 degrees. The cut should be 
made with a sliding movement of the knife. This will make 
the cut more easily and more smoothly. 

"The cut should be made with a single quick motion of the 
knife. If the first cut is not satisfactory, a completely new 
one should be made. There should be no paring of the cut, as 
this will make an irregular or wavy surface and prevent the 
cuttings coming together closely in all parts. 

"The tongues are made with a slow, sliding motion of the 
knife. They are commenced slightly above one-third of the 
distance from the sharp end of the bevel and cut down until 
the tongue is just a trifle more than one-third the length of 
the cut surface. The tongue should be cui, not split. The 
knife should not follow the grain of the wood, but should be 
slanted in such a way that the tongue will be about one-half 
as thick as it would be if made by splitting. Before withdraw- 
1 Bioletti, PYederic T. Calif. Exp. Sta., Bui. ISO: 108-112. 



PROPAGATION 53 

iiifi the knife it is hcnt ()V(t in order to open ont the toiifjne. 
This very nnich t'aciHtates the phieing together of stock and 
scion. 

"The stock and scion are now phiced together and, if every- 
thing has been done properly, there will be no cut surface 
visible and the extremity of neither stock nor scion will pro- 
ject over the cut surface of the other. It is much better that 
the points should not quite reach the bottom of the cut surface 
than that they should overlap, as the union will be more com- 
l)lete and the scions will be less liable to throw out roots. If 
the points do overlap, the overlapping portion should be cut 
off, as in the Thampin grafts. 

"A skillful grafter, by following the above-described method, 
will make grafts most of which will hold together very firmly. 
Many of them would be displaced, however, in subsequent 
operations, so that it is necessary to tie them. This is done 
with raffia or waxed string. The only object of the tying is 
to keep the stock and scion together until they unite by the 
growth of their own tissues, so that the less material used the 
better, provided this object is attained. For the formation 
of healing tissue air is necessary, so that clay, wax, tinfoil 
or anything that would exclude the air should not be used. 
The tying material is passed twice around the point of the 
scion to hold it down firmly, and then with one or two wide 
spirals it is carried to the point of the stock, which is fastened 
firmly with two more turns and the end of the string passed 
under the last turn. The less string is used the more easily 
it is removed later in the nursery. 

"Untreated raffia should be used for late grafts which are 
to be |)lante(l directly out in the nursery, but if the grafts 
are to be placed first in a callusing bed it is best to bluestone 
the raffia in order to prevent rotting before the grafts are 
planted. This is done by steeping the bundles of raffia in a 
three per cent solution of bluestone for a few hours and then 



54 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

hanging them up to dry. Before using, the raffia should be 
washed quickly in a stream of water in order to remove the 
bluestone which has crystallized on the outside and which might 
corrode the graft. 

"Some grafters prefer waxed string for grafting. The 
string should be strong enough to hold the graft, but thin 
enough to be broken by hand. No. 18 knitting cotton is a 
good size. It is waxed by soaking the balls in melted grafting 
wax for several hours. The string will absorb the wax, and 
may then be placed on one side until needed. A good wax 
for this purpose is made by melting together one part of tal- 
low, two parts of beeswax, and three parts of rosin." 

Wire grafting. 

"The merits claimed for this method are that it is more 
rapid, requires less skill, and does away with the troublesome 
tying and still more troublesome removal of the tying material. 
Practiced grafters can obtain as large a percentage of No. 1 
unions by this method as by any other, and unpracticed graft- 
ers can do almost as well as practiced. Another advantage 
of the method is that the scions have less tendency to make 
roots than with the tongue graft. 

"It consists essentially of the use of a short piece of gal- 
vanized iron wire inserted in the pith of stock and scion for 
the purpose of holding them together, thus replacing both 
tongues and raffia. It has been objected that the iron would 
have a deleterious effect on the tissues of the graft, corroding 
them, or causing them to decay. There seems, however, no 
reason to expect any such result, and vines grafted in this way 
have been bearing for years without showing any such effect. 

" The preparation and grading of stocks and scions are exactly 
the same for this method as for the tongue graft. 

" Stock and scion are cut at an angle of 45 degrees. A piece 
of galvanized iron wire two inches long is then pushed one inch 



PROPAGATION 55 

into the firmest pitli. This will usually be the i)ith of the stock, 
hut it will lieiiend ou the varieties being gral'ted. The scion 
is then pushed on to the wire and pressed down until it is in 
contact with the stock. If the cuttings Jiave large pith it is 
better to use two pieces of wire, one placed in the stock first 
and the other in the scion. 

" The length of wire to use will vary with the size and firm- 
ness of the cuttings, but 2 inches will usually be found most 
satisfactory. Wire of No. 17 gauge is the most useful size." 

Making bundles. 

" If the grafts are to be planted out directly in the nursery, 
they may be simply laid in boxes or trays, covered with damp 
sacks, and carried out to be planted as soon as made. It is 
usually better, however, to place them for several weeks in a 
callusing bed before planting. In this case it is necessary for 
convenience of handling to tie them up into bundles. No 
more than twenty grafts should be placed in a bundle, and 
ten is better. If the bundles are too large there is danger of 
the grafts in the middle becoming moldy or dry. 

" A stand is very convenient. It consists of a piece of board 
12 inches, on one end of which is nailed a cleat 6 inches by 4 
inches and under the other end a support of the same size. 
Two 4-inch wire nails are driven through the board from below, 
4 inches apart and 5 inches from the cleat. Two other 4-inch 
nails are driven similarly at li inches from the other end. The 
grafts are laid on this stand with the scions resting against 
the cleat, and are then tied with the two pieces of bluestoned 
raffia that have previously been placed above each pair of 
nails. This arrangement insures all the scions, and therefore 
the unions, being at the same level, and puts both ties below 
the union where they will not strain the graft. The tying is 
more expeditious and less liable to disturb the unions than if 
the bundles are made without a guide. 



56 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

" A skillful grafter will make about one hundred tongue grafts 
on cuttings per hour, or from sixty-five to seventy-five per hour 
if he does the tying as well. Wire grafts can be made at the 
rate of two hundred and fifty or more per hour, and by proper 
division of labor where several grafters are employed this 
number can be easily exceeded. These estimates do not in- 
clude the preparation and grading of the cuttings." 

Grafting rooted cuttings. 

The cion may be grafted on a stock rooted in the nursery 
the previous season, much the same methods being used as 
with cuttings. This method is employed to utilize cuttings 
too small to graft, the added sizes attained in the nursery mak- 
ing them large enough, and in grafting on stocks which root 
with difficulty, thus saving the making of grafts which never 
grow. The stocks, in this method, are cut so that the cions 
may be inserted as the original cutting and not as the new 
growth. The roots, for convenience in handling, are cut back 
to an inch or thereabouts in length. 

The callming bed. 

If bench grafts are planted at once in the nursery, most of 
them fail. They are, therefore, stratified in a callusing bed 
where moisture and temperature can be controlled. Bio- 
letti describes a callusing bed and its use as follows : ^ 

"This callusing bed is usually a pile of clean sand placed 
on the south side of a wall or building and surrounded by a 
board partition where there is no possibility of its becoming 
too wet by the flow of water from a higher level or from an 
overhanging roof. It should be protected, if necessary, by 
a surrounding ditch. It should be furnished with a removable 
cover of canvas or boards to protect it from rain and to enable 
the temperature to be controlled by the admission or exclusion 
1 Bioletti, Frederic T. Calif. Exp. Sta., Btil. 180: 113-118. 



PROPAGATION 57 

of the sun's rays. A water-proof wagon-cover, black on one 
side and white on the other, is excellent for this purpose. 

"The bottom of tlie callnsing bed is first co\erc(l with 2 or 
3 inches of sand. The bundles of grafts are then placed in 
a row along one end of the bed, and sand well filled in around 
them. The bundles should be placed in a slightly inclined 
position with the scions uppermost, and the sand should be 
dry enough so that it sifts in between the grafts in the bundle. 
The bundles of grafts are then covered up completely with 
sand, leaving it at least 2 inches deep above the top of the scion. 
Another row is then placed in the same manner until the bed 
is full. Finally a layer of 2 or 3 inches of moss or straw is 
placed o\er all. 

"In the callusing bed we should endeavor to hasten and 
perfect the union of stock and scion as much as possible while 
delaying the starting of the buds and the emission of the roots. 
The latter processes require more moisture than the formation 
of healing tissue, therefore tlie sand should be kept compara- 
tively dry. Between 5 and 10 per cent of water in the sand 
is sufficient. The purer the sand the less water is necessary. 
There should be a little more moisture present than in the sand 
used for keeping the cuttings over winter. Too much moisture 
will stimulate the emission of roots and starting of buds with- 
out aiding the callus formation. 

"All the vital processes progress more rapidly when the 
cuttings are kept warm. To delay them, therefore, we keep 
the sand cool, and to hasten them we make it warm. In the 
beginning of the season and up to the middle of March we keep 
the sand cool. This is done by keeping the bed covered during 
the day when the sun is shining, and unco^•ering occasionally 
at night when there is no fear of rain. If the black-and-white 
wagon-cover is used, the white side should be placed outward 
to reflect the heat. The temperature should be kept about 
60° F. or lower. 



58 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

"About the middle of March the temperature of the bed 
should be raised. This is done by removing the cover during 
warm days and carefully covering at night. If necessary the 
layer of moss or straw should be removed on sunny days and 
then replaced. The temperature of the sand at the level of 
the unions should be about 75° F. during this period. If the 
temperature rises higher than this, there will be a more abun- 
dant production of callus, but it will be soft, easily injured, 
and liable to decay. 

" At the end of four weeks after warming the bed, the union 
should be well cemented. The callus should not only have 
formed copiously around the whole circumference of the wound, 
but it should have acquired a certain amount of toughness due 
to the formation of fibrous tissue. It should require a pull 
of several pounds to break the callus and separate stock and 
scion. When the callus has acquired this quality the grafts 
are in condition to be planted in the nursery, and may be 
handled without danger. If taken from the bed while the 
callus is still soft, many unions will be injured and the grafts 
will fail, or unite only on one side. 

" If left as long as this in the call using bed most of the scion 
buds will have started and formed white shoots. These 
shoots, however, should not be more than i to 1 inch long. 
If they are longer the bed has been kept too wet or too warm. 
Roots will also have started from the stock, but these also 
should not be over i inch long. The grafts should be handled 
as carefully as is practicable, but there is no objection to break- 
ing off any scion shoots or stock roots which have grown too 
long. It is almost impossible to save them, and new ones 
will start after the grafts are planted, and make a perfectly 
satisfactory growth." 

Care in the nursery. 

The grafts are planted in the nursery, and are given much 
the same care recommended for cuttings. They may be set 



PROPAGATION 59 

in trenches made with \)\o\v or spade; or tliey may be planted 
in very shallow trenches with a dihlile. After planting, the 
grafts are covered with an inch or two of soil, thus forming a 
wide ridge in the nursery row with the union of the grafts at 
the original level of the soil. Cultivation should begin at 
once and be frequent enough to prevent the formation of a 
crust, in order that the young shoots may not have difficulty 
in forcing their way through the soil. Roots start on the 
cions sooner than on the stock, the soil being warmer at the 
surface, and help sustain the cions until the stocks are well 
rooted, at which time all roots started on the cion are removed, 
and at the same time the tying material is cut if it has not rotted. 
Suckers are removed as soon as they show^ above groimd. The 
grafts are dug as soon as the leaves fall and the young vines 
become dormant, after w^hich they are sorted in three lots, 
according to size of top and root, and heeled-in in a cool moist 
place until they are to be planted. 

Nursery versus home-grown vines. 

The verdict of all vineyardists is that it is better to buy 
nursery-growm vines than to attempt to gro\v them. The 
high quality of the vines which can be purchased and the 
reasonable purchase price make it hardly Avorth while to try 
home-grown vines, especially since considerable investment, 
experience and skill are required to grow^ good vines. 

"Pedigreed" Grape Vines 

Many viticulturists, in common with orchardists, believe 
that their plants should be propagated only from parents 
which have good characters, that is, are vigorous, healthy, 
productive, and bear fruit of large size, perfect form, 
good color and good quality. They believe, in short, that 
varieties can be improved by bud selection. There is, however, 



60 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

but little in either theory or fact to substantiate the belief 
of those who say that varieties once established can be im- 
proved ; or, on the other hand, that they degenerate. Present 
knowledge and experience indicate that heredity is all but 
complete in varieties propagated from parts of plants. The 
multitude of grapes in any variety, all from one seed, are mor- 
phologically one individual. A few kinds of grapes go back to 
Christ's time, and these seem to agree almost perfectly with 
the descriptions of them made by Roman writers 2000 years 
ago. How, then, can the differences between vines of a variety 
in every vineyard in the land be explained ? 

Ample explanation is found in "nurture" to account for the 
variation in vines without involving a change in "Nature." 
Soil, sunlight, moisture, insects, disease, plant-food, and the 
stock in the case of grafted vines, give every vine a distinct 
environment and hence a distinct individuality of its own. 
Peculiarities in a vine appear and disappear with the individual. 
A variety can be changed temporarily by its environment, but 
remove the incidental forces and it snaps back into its same old 
self. 

Heredity is not quite complete in the grape, however ; for, 
now and then, sports or mutations appear which are permanent 
and, if sufficiently different, become a strain of the parent 
variety or possibly a new variety. There are several such 
sports of the Concord under cultivation. The grape-grower 
can tell these sports from the modifications brought about by 
environment only by propagation. If a variation is transmitted 
unchanged through successive generations of the grape, as 
occasionally happens, it may be looked on as a new form. 
"Pedigreed" vines, then, should be subject to a test of several 
generations in an experimental vineyard before the grape- 
grower pays the price demanded for the supposed improvement. 



CHAPTER IV 
STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES 

Phylloxera, a tiny root-louse, made its appearance in 
France in 1861 and began multiplying with a fury unparalleled 
in the insect world. By 1874, the pest had become so wide- 
spread in Europe that it threatened the very existence of the 
great vineyard industry of that continent. All attempts to 
bring the pest under control failed, although the French gov- 
enmient offered a reward of 3()0,00() francs for a satisfactory 
remedy. Numerous methods of treating the soil to check 
the ravages of the insect were tried, also, but none was effica- 
cious. Finally, it dawned on European vineyardists that 
phylloxera is not a scourge in America, its habitat, and that 
European vineyards might be saved by grafting Mnifera vines 
on the roots of immune American grapes. At once the recon- 
struction of vineyards in Europe was begun by grafting the 
grapes on phylloxera-resistant roots. Meanwhile, consterna- 
tion spread to California when it was discovered that phylloxera 
was running riot in some of the vineyards of the Pacific slope ; 
however, with the knowledge derived from viticulturists in 
Europe, they too began reconstructing vineyards on immune 
roots, without the same success as the Europeans, it is true, 
but with such measure of success that it soon became the 
approved method of growing grapes in this great region. 

Through the use of resistant stocks, phylloxera is now defied 
in Vinifera regions. Millions of American stocks are annually 
struck at home, in Europe and wherever Vinifera grapes are 
grown, to be top-worked with varieties susceptible to phylloxera. 
Seldom has mastery over a pest been so complete; but, to 

61 



62 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

triumph over the tiny insect, the industry has had to be revo- 
hitionized. Resistant stocks, in their turn, brought innumer- 
able new problems, many of which are still unsolved. Investi- 
gations and experiences in rehabilitating vineyards have been 
carried on for forty years, the results set forth in books and 
bulletins and yet there are many problems to be solved. The 
grape-grower in regions infested with phylloxera is always 
under the necessity of taking advantage of the latest demonstra- 
tion of practices in the use of resistant stocks. These practices 
are best studied in the experiments of state experiment stations 
and the United States Department of Agriculture, and in the 
vineyards of leading grape-growlers, since even those most 
needing elucidation can be but briefly discussed in the following 
paragraphs. 

The wild vines of a species are always seedlings and are 
hence exceedingly variable. The first vineyards of resistant 
stocks were vines grafted on stocks of wild vines, and the 
results were very unsatisfactory ; for, naturally, there was 
divergence in many characters and especially in the vigor of the 
vines. Also, there was difficulty in grafting, since some wild 
vines are stout and others slender ; some bear grafts well, while 
others do not. It soon became apparent that to succeed, 
varieties must be selected from the different species for vine- 
yard work. The great task of the experimenter and grape- 
grower, therefore, has been to select varieties of the several 
species sufficiently resistant, vigorous and otherwise possessed 
of characters fitting them to become good stocks. Out of 
vast numbers tested, a few are now generally recognized as 
best for the several groups of Vinifera grapes and the several 
distinct regions in which these grapes are grown. 

Resistant species and varieties. 

The reconstruction of phylloxera-ridden vineyards by the 
use of resistant stocks is possible only because some species 



STOCKS AXD RESISTANT VINES 63 

and varieties are, as lias been said, more resistant to the root- 
louse than others. All degrees of resistance exist, as would 
be suspected, from immunity to great susceptibility. It is 
obvious that the foundation of the art of growing resistant 
vineyards is exact knowledge of the immunities and suscepti- 
bilities of the many varieties and species of grapes. From the 
first use of resistant vines, experimenters everywhere have set 
themselves at work to determine not only what the most resist- 
ant vines are, but what the causes and conditions of immunity. 
In spite of a wealth of empirical discoveries as to what grapes 
can best resist the root-louse, causes and most of the conditions 
of immunity are still little understood. Definite, useful knowl- 
edge, so far, goes little further than the establishment of lists 
of species and varieties, the latter subject to change, that are 
most useful in setting resistant vineyards. 

Phylloxera does little damage to species of Vitis native to 
the same general region in which the pest has its habitat, but 
nevertheless there are some differences in resistance in American 
grapes. Munson, one of the best American authorities on 
the resistance of species to phylloxera, says : ^ "Rotundifolia 
is entirely immune, then Rupestris, Vulpina, Cinerea, Ber- 
landieri, Champini, Candicans, Doaniana, .I^stivalis and Lince- 
cumii are so high in resistance as to be practically uninjured, 
though they may be attacked, while Labrusca is low in resist- 
ance and is much weakened in clay soils, if infested, and Vinif- 
era is entirely non-resistant." Some of these species are hard 
to propagate and difficult to suit in soil and climate so that but 
two of them are much used for resistant stocks. The two most 
used are Rupestris and Vulpina (Riparia), of both of which there 
are varieties which give satisfaction. Bioletti, a leading author- 
ity on resistant stocks in California, says : ^ 

• Munson, T. V. Foundations of American Grape Culture, 217. 
1909. 

2 Bioletti, Frederic T. Calif. Exp. Sta.. Bui. 180: 96-97. 1906. 



64 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

"Varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability 
be used in California are Rupestris St. George (dii Lot), Riparia 
X Rupestris 3306, Riparia X Rupestris 3309, Riparia Solonis 
1616, Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202, Aramon X Rupestris 2, Ri- 
paria gloire, and Riparia grande glabre. These are all varieties 
which have given excellent varieties for years in Europe, and 
have all been tested successfully in California. Among them 
are varieties suitable for nearly all the vineyard soils of Cali- 
fornia, with perhaps the exception of some of the heavier clays. 

"The only one of these varieties which has been planted 
extensively in California is the Rupestris St. George. There 
can be little doubt, however, that it will fail to give satisfaction 
in many soils, and though we may not find something better 
for all our soils it is probable that we will repeat the experience 
of Southern France and find that in most soils there is some 
other variety that gives better results. Without attempting 
to describe these varieties, but to give some idea of their merits 
and defects and of the soils most suited to each, the following 
indications are given, based principally on the opinions of L. 
Ravaz and Prosper Gervais, and on a still limited experience 
in California : 

"The Rupestris St. George is remarkably vigorous and grows 
very large, supporting the graft well even without stakes. 
It roots easily and makes excellent unions with most vinifera 
varieties. It is well suited to deep soils where its roots can 
penetrate. Its defects are that it is very subject to root-rot, 
especially in moist soils ; it suckers badly and it suffers from 
drought in shallow soils. Its great vigor produces coulure with 
some varieties and often necessitates long pruning. 

"In moist or wet soils 1616 or 3306 had given better results 
in France and gives indications of doing equally well here. In 
drier soils 3309 will probably be found preferable. 

"Aramon Rupestris No. 2 is suited to the same soils as 
Rupestris St. George, and does particularly well in extremely 



STOCKS AXD RESISTANT VINES 65 

gravelly soils. It has some of the defects of the St. George 
and is moreover more difficult to graft, and its only advantage 
in California is that it is rather less susceptible to root-rot. 

"There are no better resistant stocks than Riparia gloire and 
Riparia grande glabre, wherever they are put in soils that suit 
them. They do well, however, only in deep, rich, alluvial 
soils which are neither too w-et nor too dry. Their grafts are 
the most productive of all, and ripen their grapes from one to 
two weeks earlier than the grafts on St. George. Their prin- 
cipal defect is that they are very particular as to the soil, and 
they never grow quite as large as the cion. The gloire is the 
most vigorous, and the difference of diameter is less with this 
variety than with any other Riparia. 

"The Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202 is extremely vigorous, 
roots and grafts easily, and is well adapted to rich, sandy and 
moist soils. In drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps 
not sufficient. 

"The most promising varieties for general use at present 
seem to be the two hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris, 3306 
and 3309. They have great resistance to the phylloxera, 
root and graft almost as easily as St. George, and are quite 
sufficiently vigorous to support any variety of vinifera. The 
former is more suited to the moister soils and wherever there 
is danger of root-rot, and the latter to the drier soils. In gen- 
eral, they are suited to a larger variety of soils and condition 
than perhaps any other varieties. 

" Riparia gloire should be planted only on rich, deep alluvial 
soil containing an abundance of plant food and humus, what 
would be called good garden land, such as river bank soil not 
liable to overflow. 

" In most other soils Riparia X Rupestris 3306 is to be recom- 
mended, except those that are rather dry, where 3309 is to be 
])referred, or those which are very wet, where Solonis X Riparia 
1616 is surer to give good results." 

F 



66 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

The value of a species or variety for a resistant stock may be 
judged somewhat by the visible effect of the phylloxera on the 
roots of the vines. On susceptible species, the punctures of 
the insects rapidly produce swellings which vary in size and 
number in accordance with resistance of the species. Techni- 
cally, the first swelling on the young tender rootlets of the vine 
is called a nodosity. The presence of a few nodosities on the 
root system does not indicate that a vine is not a valuable 
resistant stock. When the nodosity begins to decay and 
becomes of a cancerous nature, it is called a tuberosity. These 
tuberosities decay more or less rapidly and deeply, and when 
they rot deeply cause enfeeblement or death to the vine. Thus, 
on Vinifera varieties the tuberosities are several times larger 
and decay sets in much more quickly than on American species 
which show these tuberosities. Ratings as to resistance of 
species are usually made from the size and number of the 
tuberosities, though when these are found producing a scab-like 
wound which scales off, there may be high resisting power. 

In order to convey with some degree of definiteness the power 
of resistance to phylloxera, an arbitrary scale has been agreed 
on by viticulturists. In this scale, maximum resistance is 
indicated by 20 and minimum by 0. Thus, the resisting power 
of a good Vulpina is put as 19.5 and that of a poor Vinifera 
variety as 0. 

Adaptations of Resistant Stocks to Soils and Climates 

Resistance, of course, counts for naught in a stock which 
comes from a species unsuited to the soil and climate or other 
circumstances of the locality in which the vineyard is to be 
planted. The several species used for stocks differ widely 
in the requirements affecting growth so that the grower must 
make certain that the resistant stock he selects will find con- 
genial surroundings. Stocks in congenial circumstances are 



STOCKS AXD RESISTAXT VINES 67 

frequently more resistant than otliers inherently more resistant, 
hut whieh are not otherwise adapted to the particular condi- 
tions of the vineyard. Species of grapes vary greatly in their 
root systems, some ha\'ing thick, others slender roots ; the 
roots of some are soft, pf others hard ; some have roots going 
down dec])ly, others are almost at the surface of the ground. 
Manifostlx these various root-forms are but adaptations to 
loose and heavy, dry and moist, deep and shallow soils, or to 
some circumstance of climate. A vine bruised by adversity 
is in no c;)n(lition to withstand phylloxera. Therefore, since 
the adaptability of a variety to a soil or climate may be changed 
by the stock, the adaptations of stocks to soils and climates 
must have attention. 

Affinity of stock and cion. 

Different varieties of grapes do not behave alike on the same 
stocks, and different stocks may affect varieties differently. 
Even when the kinship is close, some grapes resist all the 
appliances of art to make a successful union ; while, on the 
other hand, quite distinct species often seem foreordained to 
be joined. For example, Rotundifolia, which has the highest 
resistance to phylloxera of any species, is useless as a stock 
because it is impossible to graft any other grape on it, while 
Vulpina and Rupestris unite readily with varieties of Vinifera, 
the slight decrease in the vigor of the grafted vines serving 
oftentimes to increase fruitfulness. Something more is neces- 
sary, then, than botanical kinship. Just what is necessary, 
no one knows, beyond : that there must be conformity in habit 
between stock and cion ; that the two must start in growth at 
approximately the same time ; and that the tissues must be 
sufficiently alike that there be proper contact in the union. 
Yet these facts do not sufficiently explain all of the affinities 
and antipathies which species and \arieties of grapes show to 
each other. Unfortunately, the grape-grower has had but 



68 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWINO 

little to guide him in selecting stocks and has had to learn by 
making repeated trials. 

Proper Planting of Grafted Vines 

Europeans and Californians long ago learned that failures 
with grafted vines often came from setting the vines too deep 
in the soil, the result being that the cions struck root and 
became independent, whereupon the stock dies or becomes so 
moribund that the beneficial effects are lost. There are grape- 
growers who argue that it is beneficial to the vine to have roots 
from both stock and cion, but experience and experiments very 
generally teach the contrary, it being found that in most grafts 
the cion roots grow more vigorously than stock roots and 
eventually starve out the latter. The disastrous effects of 
cion-rooting are often to be found, also, when grafting has been 
done on old vines in the vineyard ; and, again, when the graft 
is too close to the root system. 

Another cause of failure is that different stocks require that 
the vineyard soil be treated differently, especially at planting 
time. Vulpina stocks require that the soil be much more 
deeply plowed than for Viniferas on their own roots, since 
Vulpinas are deep-rooted and are exacting in the depth of 
root-run required. Those who have had most experience with 
resistant stocks maintain that all American grapes require 
rather deeper plowing than European grapes on their own roots. 

Influence of the Stocks on the Cion 

Up to the present, the growing of grafted grapes has been 
carried on with little thought of the mutual influence of stock 
and cion ; grapes have been grafted only to secure vines resistant 
to phylloxera. Yet there can be no doubt that stock and cion 
react on one another, and that any variety of grapes is influenced 



STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES 69 

for better or worse in eluiracters of vine aud fruit hy the stoek 
upon which it is grafted. A plant is a delicate mechanism, 
easily thrown out of gear, and all plants, the grape not the 
least, are more or less changed in the adjustments of stock and 
cion. One could fill a large volume on the supposed reciprocal 
influence of stock and cion in fruits. Space suffices, here, 
however, to mention only those proved and those having to do 
with the influence of the stock on the cion when the grape is 
grafted. 

Influence of stocks on FAiropean grapes summarized. 

Common experience in Europe and California indicates that 
varieties of \'inifera grapes grafted on resistant stocks which 
are perfectly adapted to soil and climate produce not only 
larger crops but sweeter or sourer grapes ; that the crop ripens 
earlier or later ; that the vine is often more vigorous ; and that 
there are some minor differences depending on the stock used. 
Winemakers assert that the character of their product may be 
affected for better or worse by the stock. Often vines are so 
improved by grafting that the extra expense of the operation 
and of the stock is paid for; although, to be sure, about as 
often the effects are deleterious. The successes and failures of 
vineyards on resistant stocks make plain that the vine-grower 
must study the many problems which stocks present and exer- 
cise utmost intelligence in the selection of the proper stock. 

Influence of stocks on American grapes. 

No doubt American species of grapes may be as profoundly 
modified by stocks as the European species, but there is but 
little evidence on this phase of grape-growing to be drawn from 
the experience of vineyardists. One rather conclusive experi- 
ment, however, shows that American grapes may be improved 
by growing them on stocks which give them better adai)tations 
to their environment. The experiment was tried in the Chau- 



70 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

tauqiia grape-belt in western New York by the New York 
Agricultural Experiment Station. The test was carried on 
for eleven years, during which time many interesting possibilities 
in grafting grapes in this region came to light. It was proved 
that the stock materially affects the vigor and productiveness 
of the vine and the quality of the grapes. The following brief 
account is taken from Bulletin No. 355 of the New York 
Station : 

In this experiment a number of varieties were grafted on St. 
George, Riparia Gloire and Clevener stocks, and a fourth 
group on their own roots. The varieties grafted were : Agawam, 
Barry, Brighton, Brilliant, Campbell Early, Catawba, Con- 
cord, Delaware, Goff, Herbert, lona, Jefferson, Lindley, Mills, 
Niagara, Regal, Vergennes, Winchell and Worden. The 
planting plan and all of the vineyard operations were those 
common in commercial vineyards. t 

Yearly accounts of the vineyard show that the vines passed 
through many vicissitudes. The experiment was started in 
1902 when St. George and Riparia Gloire stocks from Cali- 
fornia were set and grafted in the field. Many of these died 
the first year. The winter of 1903-04 was unusually severe, and 
many more vines w^ere either killed or so severely injured that 
they died during the next two years. The vines on St. George, 
a very deep-rooting grape, withstood the cold best. Fidia, 
the grape root-worm, was foimd in the vineyards early in the 
life of the vines and did much damage in some years. In the 
years of 1907 and 1909 the crops were ruined by hail. 

But despite these serious setbacks it was evident throughout 
the experiment that the grafted grapes made better vines and 
were more producti\'e than those on their own roots. As an 
example of the difterences in \-iel(l, a summary of the data for 
1911 may be gi^^en. In this year, an average of all the varieties 
on own roots yielded at the rate of 4.39 tons to the acre ; on 
St. George, 5.36 tons ; on Gloire, 5.32 tons ; on Clevener, 5.62 



STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES 71 

tons. The crops on the grafted vines were increased through 
the setting of more bunches and the development of larger 
hunches and berries. 

The grapes on the vines grafted on (jioire and (.'levener 
ripened a few days earlier than those on their own roots, while 
with St. George a few varieties were retarded in ripening. 
Changing the time of maturity may be very important in grape 
regions where there is danger of early frost to late-ripening 
sorts, and wliere it is often desirable to retard the harvest time 
of early grapes. 

In the behavior of tlie vines, tlie results correspond closely 
with tliose given for yields. In the growth ratings of varieties 
on different stocks, the varieties on their own roots were rated 
in vigor at 40 ; on St. George, at 63.2 ; on Gloire, at 65.2 ; on 
Clevener, at 07.9. There is no way of deciding how much 
the thrift of the vines depends on adaptability to soil, and how 
much on other factors. Since all of the varieties were more 
productive and vigorous on grafted vines than on their own roots 
it may be said tliat a high degree of congeniality exists between 
the stocks and varieties under test. 

The experiment suggests that it would be profitable to grow 
fancy grapes of American species on grafted vines, and that 
it is well within the bounds of possibility that main-crop grapes 
can be grafted profitably. In the general tuning-up of agri- 
culture now in progress, it may be expected that soon Ameri- 
can as well as Euroj)ean varieties of grapes will be grown under 
some conditions and for some purposes on roots other than 
their own. 

Direct Producers 

Attempts innumerable have been and are still being made to 
secure, by hybridizing ]\ vinifera and American species of 
grapes, varieties that will resist i)hylloxera, the mildew and 
black-rot. The grapes of this continent are relatively immune 



72 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWINO 

to all of these troubles, and if hybrids could be obtained to 
produce directly, without grafting, grapes with the good qualities 
of the Yiniferas — in short, European grapes on American 
vines — the cultivated grape flora of the whole world might 
be changed. So far, a "direct producer" that is wholly satis- 
factory in either Europe or California has not been found for 
the wine or raisin industries, although a number of varieties 
are rated as very good table grapes, and a few are used in wine- 
making. The best of the direct producers are Lenoir, Taylor, 
Noah, Norton's Virginia, Autuchon, Othello, Catawba, and 
Delaware. 





Plate \'. — \'inifera fj;rapos jirinvu uul -. ! i- iii .\ew York. 
Top, Malvasia ; bottom, Chasselas Golden. 



CHAPTER V 
THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 

A VINEYARD is more artificial tlian other plantations of fruits, 
since the vine requires greater discipline under cultivation 
than tree or bush. Yet greater art is required only when the 
attempt is made to grow the grape to perfection, for the vine 
bears fruit if left to indulge in riotous growth wheresoever it 
can strike root. Vineyard management, therefore, may repre- 
sent the consummate art of three thousand or more years of 
cultural subserviency ; or it may be so primeval in simplicity 
as to approach neglect. The grape is so wonderfully responsive 
to good care, however, that no true lover of fruit will profane 
it with neglect, but will seek, rather, to give it a favorable 
situation, its choice of soils and such generous care as will insure 
strong, vigorous, producti^'e vineyards of choicely good fruit. 

Grape-growing is a specialists' business, for the culture of the 
grape is unlike that of any other fruit. The essentials of vine- 
yard management, however, are easily learned. Indeed, care 
<if the vine comes almost instinctively ; for the grape has been 
cultivated since prehistoric times and the races of the world 
are so familiar with it through sacred literatures, myths, fables, 
stories and poetry, that its care is prompted by natural impulse. 
The grape has followed civilized man so closely from place to 
jjiace through the temperate climates of the world, that rules 
and methods of culture have been developed for almost every 
condition under which it will grow, so that e\ery grape-grower 
may profit by the successes and failures of the generations 

73 



74 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

that preceded him. Grape-growing is not, however, an art 
wholly governed by rules of the past to be carried on by com- 
mon laborers who use hands only, but is one in which its fol- 
lowers may make use of science and may put thought, skill 
and taste into their work. 

Laying Out the Vineyard 

Vineyards are laid out for the most part after accepted pat- 
terns for each of the great grape regions of America. The vines 
are always planted in rectangles, usually at a less distance 
apart in the rows than the rows are from each other, but some- 
times in squares. Pride in appearance and convenience in 
vineyard operations make perfect alignment imperative. Many 
varieties of grapes, especially of American species, are partially 
self-sterile, so that some varieties must have others interplanted 
with them for cross-pollination. This is usually done by set- 
ting alternate rows of the variety to be pollinated and the cross- 
pollinator. All self-fertile varieties are set in solid blocks be- 
cause of convenience in harvesting. 

Direction of roirs. 

Some grape-growers attach considerable importance to the 
direction in which rows run, holding either that the full blaze 
of the sun at mid-day is desirable for vine, soil and fruit, or 
that it is detrimental. Those who desire to provide fullest 
exposure to the sun plant rows east and west when the distance 
between ^'ines is less than the distance l:)etween rows ; north 
and south when vines are farther apart in the row than the rows 
are from each other. When shade seems more desirable, these 
directions are reversed. Most often, however, the rows are 
laid out in accordance with the shape of the vineyard ; or, if 
the land is hilly, the rows follow the contour of the declivities 
to prevent soil erosion by heavy rains. 



THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 75 

For convenience in vineyard operations, especially spraying 
and harvesting, there should always be alleys through a vine- 
yard. On hilly lands, the alleys are located to secure ease in 
hauling ; on level lands they are usually arranged to cut the 
vineyards into blocks twice as long as wide. An alley is usually 
made by leaving out a row of vines. INIany vineyards are laid 
out with rows far enough apart so that alleys are not needed. 

Distances between rows and plants. 

There are great variations in the distances between rows and 
plants in different regions, and distances vary somewhat in 
any one region. Distances are influenced by the following 
considerations : Rich soils and large vigorous varieties require 
greater distances than poor soils and less vigorous varieties; 
sometimes, however, it is necessary to crowd a variety in the 
vineyard so that by reducing its vigor fruitfulness may be pro- 
moted. T'sually the warmer the climate, or the exposure, the 
greater should be the distance between vines. Very often the 
topography of the land dictates planting distances. But while 
taking in account the preceding considerations, which rightly 
suggest the distances between plants in the row, convenience 
in vineyard operations is the factor that most often fixes the 
distance between rows. The rows must be far enough apart 
in commercial vineyards to permit the use of two horses in 
plowing, spraying and harvesting. 

Planted in scjuares, the distance varies from seven feet in 
garden culture to nine feet in commercial vineyards for eastern 
America. More often, however, the rows are eight or nine 
feet apart, with the vines six, seven or eight and in the South 
ten or twelve feet apart in the rows. IManting distances are 
less, as a rule, on the Pacific slope than in eastern regions ; that 
is. the distances between the rows are the same, to permit work 



76 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

with teams, but the distance between plants in the rows is 
less, sometimes being no greater than three and a half or four 
feet. The rank-growing Rotundifolias of the southern states 
need much room, nine by sixteen feet being none too much. 
Sunshine must govern the distance apart somewhat. Grapes 
picked in the pleached alleys of closely set vineyards of the 
North and East are few, small and poor ; farther south, shade 
from the vines may be a requisite for a good crop. 

The number of vines to the acre must be determined before 
growing or buying plants. This is done by multiplying the 
distance in feet between the rows by the distance the plants 
are apart in the row, and diA'iding 43,560, the number of square 
feet in an acre, by the product. 

Preparation for Planting 

It is impossible to put too much emphasis on the necessity 
of thorough preparation of the land before planting the grape. 
Extra expenditure to secure good tilth is amply repaid by 
increased growth in the grape, and all subsequent care may 
fail to start the vines in vigorous growth if the land is not in 
good tilth preparatory to planting. The vineyard is to stand 
a generation or more, and its soil is virtually immortal, two 
facts to suggest perfect preparation. The land should be thor- 
oughly well plowed, harrowed, mixed and smoothed. The 
better this work is done, the greater the potentialities of the 
vineyard. Here, indeed, is a time to be mindful of the adage 
which comes from Cato, a sturdy old Roman grape-grower of 
2000 years ago : "The face of the master is good for the land." 

Preparation is a series of operations in which it is wise to take 
advantage of time and begin a year before the vines are to be 
set. The land must be put in training to fit it for the long 
service it is to render. The two great essentials of preparation 
are provision for drainage and thorough cultivation. Both, 



THE VIXEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 77 

to be performed as the well-heiiiji; of tlie j;raj)e retiuire, take 
time, aiul a year is none too short a j)erio(l in which to <lo the 
work. Moreo\('i-, newly (h'ained and deeply i)lo\ved land 
requires time for frost, air, sunshine and rain to sweeten and 
enliven the soil after the mixture by these operations of live 
topsoil with inert subsoil. 

Drainage. 

The ideal soil, as we are often told, resembles a sponge, and 
is capable of retaining the greatest possible amount of plant- 
food dissolved in water, antl at the same time is permeable for 
air. This ideal, sponge-like condition is particularly desirable 
for the grape, especially native species, because the vines of 
all are exceedingly deep-rooted. Moreover, grapes thrive 
best in a warm soil. While, therefore, the roots may make 
good use of nutritious solutions, if not too diluted, in an un- 
drained soil, they suffocate and do not receive sufficient bottom 
heat. It must be made emphatic that the grape will not 
thrive in water-logged land. 

Unless the land is naturally well drained, under-drainage 
must be p^o^'ided as the first step in the preparation of land for 
the vineyard. Tile-draining is usually best done by those who 
make land-draining their business, but information as to every 
requirement of land and detail of work may be secured from 
many texts, so that grape-growers may perform the work for 
themselves. In concluding the topic, the reader must be 
reminded that high and hill lands are not necessarily well 
drained, and low lands are not necessarily wet even if the sur- 
face is level. Often hilltops and hillsides need artificial drain- 
ing ; much less often valley lands and level lands may not 
need it. To assume, too, that gravelly and shaley soils are 
always well drained often leads directly contrary to the truth. 
Sandy and gravelly soils need drainage nearly as often as 
loamy and davev ones. 



78 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Following tiling, if the land has had to be under-drained, 
the vineyard should be graded to fill depressions and to make 
the surface uniform. Usually this can be done with cutaway, 
tooth or some other harrow, but sometimes the grader or 
road-scraper must be put in use. 

Fitting the land. 

Preparatory cultivation should begin the spring preceding 
planting by deep plowing. If the land has been used long for 
general farming so that a hard plow-sole has been formed by 
years of shallow plowing, a subsoil-plow should follow in the 
furrow of the surface plow, although it is seldom advisable to 
go deeply into the true hard pan. Fitting the land must not 
stop here but should continue through the summer with harrow 
and cultivator to pulverize the soil almost to its ultimate 
particles. Such cultivation can be sufficiently thorough, and 
be made at the same time profitable, by growing some hoed 
crop which requires intensive culture. If the soil lacks humus, 
a cover-crop of clover or other legume might well be sown in 
early summer to be plowed under in late fall. Or, if stable 
manure is available, this generally should be applied the fall 
before planting. Stable manure applied at this time to a soil 
inclined to be niggardly puts an atmosphere in the forth- 
coming vineyard wholly denied the grower who must rely on 
commercial fertilizers. 

The land should be plowed again, deeply and as early in 
the fall as possible, harrowed thoroughly, or possibly cross- 
plowed and then harrowed. The land must go into the winter 
ready for early spring planting and the fall work must be done 
promptly and with a sturdy team and sharp, bright tools. The 
grower must keep in mind that no opportunity will offer during 
the life of the vineyard to even up for slackness in the start and 
that a vineyard of dingy, unhappy vines may be the result of 
neglect at this critical time. Good tilth should proceed until 



THE VIXKYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 79 

the earth is fairly animated with jjrowth when the \ines are 
phmted. Plate II shows a pieee of land well fitted for planting. 

Markitu/ fur planting. 

Given level land, a well-made marker, a gentle team and a 
careful driver witii a surveyor's eye, and a vineyard may be 
marked for planting witli a sled-marker, a modified corn-marker 
or even a plow. Some such marker method is commonest in 
use in laying out \ineyard rows, but it is patent to the eye of 
every ])asser-l)y in grape regions that the commonest method 
is not the best to secure perfect alignment of row and vine. The 
combination named for good work with any of the marker 
methods is found too seldom. If the marker method is used, 
it is put in practice as follows : The rows being marked at the 
distance decided on, a deep furrow is plowed along the row by 
going both ways with the plow ; this done, small stakes are set 
in the furrow at the proper distances for the vines, taking care 
to line them both ways. Planting holes are thus dug in the 
furrow with the stakes as a center. 

Marking by means of a measuring wire or chain is the best 
method of locating \ines accurately in a vineyard. The meas- 
uring wire varies according to the wishes of the user from two 
to three hundred feet or may be even longer. The best wires 
are made of annealed steel wire about an eighth of an inch in 
diameter. At each end of the wire is a strong iron ring to be 
slipped over stakes. The wire is marked throughout its length 
by patches of soldcM* at the distances desired between rows of 
vines ; to make these places more easily seen, pieces of red cloth 
are fastened to them. Sometimes this measuring wire is made 
of several strands of small wire, giving nioi'c flexibility and 
making marking easier, since by sejjarating the strands at the 
desired points, ])ieces of cloth may be tied to mark distances. 

In using the W'ire, the side of the xineyard which is to serve 
as the base of the square is selected and the wire is stretched, 



80 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

leaving at least one rod from road or fence for a headland. 
With the wire thus stretched, a stake is placed at each of the 
distance tags to represent the first row of vines. Beginning 
at the starting point, sixty feet are measured off in the base 
line and a temporary stake is set ; eighty feet at a right angle 
with the first line are then measured off at the corner stake, 
judging the angle with the eye ; then run diagonally from 
the eighty-foot stake to the sixty-foot stake. If the distance 
between the two stakes is one hundred feet, the corner is a 
right angle. With the base lines thus started at right angles to 
each other, one can measure off with the measuring wire as 
large an area as he desires by taking care to have the line each 
time drawn parallel with the last, and the stakes accurately 
placed at the marking points on the wire. 

Still another method which may be put to good use in laying 
out a vineyard, especially if the vineyard is small, is to combine 
measure and sight. The distances about the vineyard are 
measured and stakes set to mark the ends of the rows around 
the area. Good stakes can be made from laths pointed at 
one end and whitewashed at the other. A line of stakes is 
then set across the field each way through the center, in places, 
of course, which the two central rows of vines will fill. When 
these are in place, if the area is not too large or too hilly, all 
measurements can be dispensed with and the vines can be set 
by sighting. A man at the end of the row has three laths to 
sight by in each row and a second man should drive stakes as 
directed by the sighter. Accurate work can be done by this 
method, but it requires time, a good eye and much patience 
in the man who is sighting. 

Selecting and Preparing the Vines 

Young grape vines covet life, for they are usually vigorous 
and not easily injured. Hence, the plants may be brought 



THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 81 

from a cHstance without fear of loss. The local nurseryman 
is, however, a good adviser as to varieties if he is honest and 
intelligent, and, other things equal, he should be patronized. 
But if the grower's needs cannot be met at home, he should 
not hesitate to seek a nurseryman at a distance. This is more 
necessary with the grape than other fruits because young 
grapes are well and cheaply grown in certain localities only. 
With the grape, as with all fruit plants, it is much better to 
buy from the grower than from tree peddlers. 

Selecting oines. 

Unless the buyer knows what he wants, selecting vines is 
gambling pure and simple. Fortunately, there are several 
marks of good vines very helpful to those who know them. 
One should first make sure that the roots and tops are alive to 
the remotest parts. The vines should have a good clean, 
healthy look with trunk diameter large enough to indicate 
vigorous growth, and an ample spread of roots. Large size 
is not as desirable as firm, well-matured wood and an abun- 
dance of roots. Vines with internodes of medium length for 
the variety are better than those with great length or very short 
internodes. Such precautions as are possible should be taken 
to insure varieties true to name, although here the reputation 
of the nurseryman must be depended on except for the few 
varieties which may be known at sight in the nursery. 

First-grade one-year-old vines are usually better than two- 
year-olds. Stunted vines are not worth planting and two-year- 
old \'ines are often stunted one-year-olds. A few weak-grow- 
ing varieties gain in vigor if allowed to remain in the nursery 
two years — three years, never. 

Handling and preparing the vines. 

The better vines are packed, transported and cared for in 
the field, the quicker will the roots take hold and the vines 



82 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

make the vigorous start on which so much depends. The 
nurseryman should be requested not to prune much before 
packing and to pack the vines well for shipping. The vines 
should be heeled-in as soon as they reach their destination. If 
the vines are dry on arrival, they should be drenched well 
before heeling-in. It sometimes happens that the vines are 
shriveled and shrunken from excessive drying, in which case 
the plants often may be brought back to plumpness by burying 
them root and branch in damp earth, to remain a week or 
possibly two. To heel-in, a trench should be double furrowed 
in light, moist soil, the vines spread out in the trench two or 
three deep, and then earth shoveled over the roots and half 
the tops, sifting it in the roots, after which the soil is firmed. 
The vines may thus be kept in good condition for several weeks 
if need arises. 

The vines are prepared for planting by cutting away all 
dead or injured roots and shortening-in the healthy roots. 
Grape roots can be cut severely if healthy stubs remain, the 
removal of small roots and fibers doing no harm, since fibers 
are of value only as indicating that the vine is strong and 
vigorous. Fresh fibers come quickly from stout, healthy 
roots. Most of the fibers of a transplanted vine die, and 
laying them out in the hole to preserve them, as is so often 
recommended, is but a useless burial rite. On good healthy 
vines, the stubs of the roots, when cut back, will be four to 
eight inches in length. The root system having been con- 
siderably pruned, the reciprocity between roots and tops 
must be taken into account and the top pruned accordingly. 
To reduce the work of the leaves to harmonize with the activ- 
ities of the roots, the top should be pruned to a single cane 
and two, never more than three, buds. The vine is now ready 
for planting and, the soil being in readiness, planting should 
proceed apace. 




Plate VI. —Black Hamburg (X|; 



THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 83 

Planting 

The dangers and difficulties of plantinp; hardwooded plants 
are greatlx exaggerated. The tyro, in particular, is impressed 
with his responsibilities at this time, and often sends a hurry-up 
call to experhnent station or nurseryman to "send him a man 
to plant." If the land is properly ])repared and the plants 
in good condition, the operation of planting is easily, quickh' 
and safely accomplished. There is no need, in planting the 
vine, of such puttering overniceties as laying out the roots to 
preserve the fibers, watering each vine as it is set, inserting 
the vine in a gingerly fashion to make sure that it stands in 
its new abode as it stood in the old, or puddling the roots in 
pail or tub of water. On the other hand, the slap-dash method 
of a Stringfellow who cuts off all small roots and uses a crow- 
bar in place of a spade is not doing duty by the plant, and bury- 
ing the roots deep in the earth or covering them close to the 
surface is courting failure. 

Digging the holes. 

This is a simple task in land in good tilth. The holes need 
only be large and deep enough to hold the roots without undue 
cramping. Herein is again manifested the wisdom of thoroughly 
preparing the land; for, in well-prepared land, the hole is 
reallx' as large as the vineyard. Even in the condition of poor 
tilth, deep holes are often a menace to the life of the plant, 
especially if drainage is not provided, for the deep hole becomes 
a tub into which water pours and stands to soak the roots of 
dying vines. An extra spurt in digging holes cannot take the 
l)lace of perfect fitting of the land. 

There is nothing to commend the practice of digging holes 
in a leisure time that all may be ready when the time to plant 
arrives. The vines will strike root best in the freshl\ turned, 
moist soil of newly dug earth, which can be firmly set about 



84 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

the roots when the vine is planted. Neither is time saved 
in digging beforehand, for the sun-baked and rain-washed sides 
of holes long dug would surely have to be pared afresh. It is, 
however, quite worth while to throw the surface soil to one 
side and that lower to the other, that a spadeful of moist, 
virile, surface soil may be put next to the roots. 

There are, no doubt, some soils in which the holes might be 
blasted out with dynamite, as, for instance, in a shallow soil 
with the hard pan near the surface and good subsoil beneath. 
It is very questionable, however, whether these defective soils 
should be used for commercial plantings as long as there still 
remain unplanted many acres in all grape regions of good deep 
land for the grape. To such as are attracted by "dynamite 
farming," minute descriptions of methods of use of dynamite 
and even demonstrations may be secured from manufacturers 
of the explosive. 

Time to plant. 

The best time to plant the vine in cold climates is early spring, 
when sun and showers arouse the spirit of growth in plants, 
and nutritive solutions proceed quickly and unerringly to their 
preappointed places. At this time, the much mutilated vine 
can undertake best the double task of making fresh roots and 
opening the dormant leaves. Fall planting puts forward the 
work, thus diminishing the rush of early spring when vineyard 
operations crowd, and, no doubt, when all is favorable, enables 
the vines to start a little more quickly. However, there are 
frequently serious losses from planting in the fall. In cold 
winters the grip of frost is suflScient to wrench the young vine 
from its place and sometimes all but heaves it out of the soil. 
There is, also, great liability of winter-killing in vines trans- 
planted in the autumn, not because of greater tenderness of 
the plant, but because of greater porosity of the loosened soil 
which enables the cold to strike to a greater depth. These 



THE VIXEYARD A\D ITS MANAGEMENT 85 

two objections to fall plant ini,' can he overcome laiffcly by 
moundin*,' up tlie earth so as practically to cover the \ines, 
lc\'elinfj; the mound in early spring ; but this extra work more 
than offsets the labor savmg in fall planting. 

In climates in which the soil does not freeze in the winter, 
the vines may be set in the autumn if all is favorable. Often, 
however, conditions are not favorable to fall planting in warm 
climates, since autumn rains frequently soak the soil so that 
it cannot be placed proi)erly about the roots; and, moreover, 
in a colfl, water-logged soil the inactive roots begin to decay ; 
or the soil may be too dry for fall planting. Under such condi- 
tions, it is often better to delay planting in warm climates until 
spring when better soil conditions can be secured. Fall or 
spring, the soil should be reasonably dry, warm and mellow 
when the work is done. The best time to plant must necessarily 
A ary from year to year, and the vineyardist must decide exactly 
when to undertake planting in accordance with the conditions 
of soil and weather, mindful that the Psalmist's injunction 
that there is "a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that 
which is planted" is subject to several conditions requiring 
judgment. The grape puts out its leaves late in the spring, 
making the temptation great to delay planting ; late-set plants, 
however, need special care lest they suffer from the summer 
droughts which annually parch the lands of this continent. 

The operation of planting. 

All being in readiness, planting proceeds rapidly. A gang 
of four men work to advantage. Two dig holes, a third holds 
the vines and tramps the earth as the remaining man shovels 
in earth. Except in large vineyards, four men are seldom 
a\'ailable, and gangs of two or three must divide the work 
among its members as best suits conditions. A tree-setting 
board is not needed in planting grapes, although some growers 
use it. The man who holds the vines in the hole and tramps 



86 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

as the shoveler fills, must align the plant after the stake is 
removed and see that it stands perpendicularly in the hole. 
The stake, a lath, is set in its old place in the hole to serve as a 
support for the growing vine and to mark it so that the culti- 
vator does not pull up the young plant. The soil must be set 
firm about the roots of the plant, but zeal in tramping should 
diminish as the hole is filled, leaving the topsoil untramped, 
smooth, loose and pulverized, a dust mulch — the best of all 
mulches — to prevent evaporation. 

The depth to which vines should be set is a matter of con- 
troversy. This should be governed by the soil more than by 
any other factor, although some varieties need a deeper root- 
run than others. The rule to plant to the depth the vine stood 
in the nursery row is safe under most conditions, although in 
light, hungry or thirsty soils the roots should go deeper ; and, 
on the other hand, in heavy soils, not so deep. Deep plant- 
ing is a more common mistake than shallow planting, for roots 
under most conditions stand exposure better than internment, 
going down being more natural than coming up for a root seek- 
ing a place to its liking. 

Watering at planting is necessary only when the land is 
parched with drought or in regions in which irrigation is prac- 
ticed. When necessary, water should be used liberally, at 
least a gallon or two to a vine. After the earth has been firmed 
about the roots and the hole is nearly filled, the water should 
be poured in and the hole filled without more firming. Under 
dry weather conditions, some prefer to puddle the roots ; that 
is, to dip them in thin mud and plant with the mud adhering. 
In making the puddle, loose loam and not sticky clay is used, 
as clay may bake so hard as to injure the roots. With puddling, 
as with watering, the surface soil should be left loose and soft 
withovit traces of the puddling below. 

Manure or fertilizer about the roots or even in the hole are 
not necessary or even desirable. If the soil is to be enriched 



THE VIXEYAKl) A\D ITS MANAGEMEXT 87 

at all at planting time, the fertilizer should be spread on the 
siirfaee to he eultivated in or to have its food elements leak 
down as raijis fall. In land in whieh the i)ro\ idential design 
for grapes is plainly manifested, th(> y'uw at no time responds 
heartily to fertilizers, the good of stable mamn-e probably 
eoming for the most part from its ell'eets on the te\tur(> and 
water-holding eapaeity of tiie soil. The newly set plant is 
not in need of outside nourishment ; to put rank manure or 
strong eommercial fertilizers about the roots of a young newly 
set vine is plant infantieide. 

Care of Young Vines 

Virgil calls the period in the life of the vine between the 
setting and the first vintage, the "tender nonage," and tells 
us that at this time the vines need careful rearing ; so they do, 
now as then, American grapes as well as the grapes of ancient 
Rome. Fortunately, any departure from normal well-being 
is easily told in the grape, for the color of the leaf is as accurate 
an index to the health and vigor of the vine as the color of the 
tongue or the beat of the pulse in man. A change of color 
from the luxuriant green of thrifty grape foliage, especially the 
yellow hue indicating that the leaf-green is not functioning 
properly, suggests that the vines are sick or need nursing in 
some detail of care. When all goes well, however, the amazing 
energy of Nature is nowhere better seen among plants than 
in the growth of the grape, so that much of the care is in the 
use of the knife; in fact, as we shall see, the grape almost lives 
by the knife the first two years out. 

The first year. 

The vines having been pruned and staked at planting, these 
operations need no attention in the first summer. Many 
varieties send up several shoots as growth starts, and, except 



88 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

in the case of grafted plants and in the event of the suckers 
coming from the stock, these should be left to feed the vine and 
help to establish a good root system. Vines making a strong 
growth should be tied to the stake, at least the strongest shoot, 
to keep the wind from whipping it about and to keep the plants 
out of the way of the cultivator. The only knack in tying is 
to keep the vine on the windward side of the stake, thus saving 
the breaking of tying material. 

The first year's pruning, though severe, is easily done. All 
l)ut the strongest cane are cut out and this is pruned back to 
two buds, nearly to the ground, so that the vines are much as 
when set in the vineyard. This pruning, and that of the next 
two years, has as the object the establishment of a good root 
system and the production of a sturdy trunk at the height 
at which the vine is to be headed. It is important that the 
cane from which the trunk is to come be healthy and the wood 
well ripened. Pruning may be done at any time after the 
leaves fall, though most growers give preference to late winter. 
In cold climates it is a good practice to plow up to the young 
vines for winter protection, in which case the pruning should 
be done before plowing. 

Every detail of vineyard management should be performed 
with care and at the accepted time in this critical first year. 
Cultivation must be intensive, insects and fungi must be warded 
oft', mechanical injuries avoided, vines that have refused to 
grow must be marked for discard, and the vineyard be put 
down to a cover-crop in early August if it was not earlier planted 
to some hoed catch-crop. 

The second year. 

Work begins in the spring of the second year with the setting 
of trellis posts on which one wire is put up. The vine is not 
yet ready to train but the slender lath of the first season is 
not sufficient support, and the one wire on the future trellis 



THE VINEYARD A\D ITS MANAGEMENT 80 

saves the exi)eii.se of staking. Tying requires some care and 
is usually done with string or bast. As the summer proceeds, 
suckers from the roots are removed and some growers thin the 
shoots on the young vine ; some think it necessary also to top 
the growth if it becomes too luxuriant and so keep the cane 
within bounds. Suckers must be cut or broken off at the points 
where they originate, otherwise several new ones may start 
from the base of the old. If the vines are topped, it must be 
kept in mind that summer pruning is weakening, and the tips 
of shoots should, therefore, be taken when small, the object 
being to direct the growth into those parts of the vine which 
are to become permanent. 

Pruning, the second winter the vine is out, depends on the 
vigor of the plant. If a strong, healthy, well-matured cane 
over-tops the lower wire of the trellis, it should be cut back so 
that the cane may be tied to the wire ; otherwise the vine should 
again be cut almost to the ground, leaving but three or four 
buds. If the cane be left, in addition to sturdiness and maturity, 
it should be straight, for it is to become the trunk of the mature 
vine. The training of the young vine is now at an end, for 
the next season the vine must be started toward its permanent 
form, instructions for which are given in the chapter on pruning. 

The summer care of the vineyard does not diflPer materially 
in the second year from that of the first. Intensive cultivation 
continues, the vines are treated for pests and the annual cover- 
crop follows cultivation. Many varieties, if vigorous, will 
set some fruit in this second summer, but the crop should not 
be allowed to mature, the sooner removed the better, as fruit- 
ing at this stage of growth seriously weakens the young vines. 

Catch-crops and Cover-crops 

A catch-crop is one growm between the rows of another crop 
for profit from the produce. A cover-crop is a temporary 



90 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

crop grown, as the term was first used, to protect the soil, but 
the word is now used to include green-manuring crops as well. 
Catch-crops seldom have a place in most vineyards, but cover- 
crops are often grown. 

Catch-crops. 

Catch-crops are not, as a rule, profitable in commercial 
vineyards ; they may bring temporary profit but in the long 
run they are usually detrimental to the A'ines. It may pay and 
the grape may not be injured in some localities, if such truck 
crops as potatoes, beans, tomatoes and cabbage are grown 
between the rows or even in the rows for the first year and 
possibly the second. Land, to do duty by the two crops, 
however, must be excellent and the care of both crops must 
be of the best. Growing gooseberries, currants, any of the 
brambles, or even strawberries, is a poor procedure unless the 
vineyard is small, the land very valuable or other conditions 
prevail which make intensive culture possible or necessary. 
The objections to catch-crops in the vineyard are two : they 
rob the vines of food and moisture and endanger them to injury 
from tools in caring for the catch-crop. 

Sometimes the grape itself is planted as a catch-crop in the 
vineyard. That is, twice the number of vines required in a 
row for the permanent vineyard are set with the expectation 
of cutting out alternate vines when two or three crops ha^■e 
been harvested and the vines begin to crowd. This practice is 
preferable to interplanting with bush-fruits, yet there is not 
much to commend it if the experience of those who have tried 
it is taken as a guide. Too often the filler vines are left a year 
too long with the result that the permanent vines are checked 
in growth for several years following. The profits from the 
fillers are never large, scarcely pay for the extra work, and if 
the permanent vines are stunted, the filler must be put down 
as a liabilitv rather than as an asset. 



THE VIXEYARI) AM) ITS MAXAGEME^T 91 

Cover-crops. 

In an oxprrinient hcin^ conducted by the New York Agri- 
cultural ExjX'rimcnt Station, f^rapes do not give a very appre- 
ciable response to cover-crops in yield of fruit or growth of 
vine.^ There seem to be no other experiments to confirm the 
results at the New York Station, and grape-growers nowhere 
have used cover-crops very generally for the betterment of their 
vineyards. There is doubt, therefore, as to whether grapes 
will respond profitably to the annual use of cover-crops in yield 
of fruit, which, of course, is the ultimate test of the value of 
cover-crops, but a test hard to apply unless the experiment 
runs a great number of years. 

Leaving out the doubtful value of cover-crops in increasing 
the supply of plant -food and thereby producing an increase 
in yield, there are at least three ways in which cover-crops 
are valuable in the vineyard. Thus, it is patent to all who have 
tried cover-crops in the \ineyard that the land is in much better 
tilth and more easily worked when some green crop is turned 
under in fall or spring ; it is not unreasonable to assume, though 
it is impossible to secure reliable experimental data to confirm 
the belief, that cover-crops protect the roots of grapes from 
winter-killing ; certainly it may be expected that a cover- 
crop sowed in midsummer will cause grapes to mature their wood 
earlier and more thoroughly so that the vines go into the winter in 
better condition. The only objection to be raised against 
cover-crops in the vineyard is that pickers, mostly women, 
object to the cover-crop when wet with rain or dew and usually 
choose to pick in \ineyards having no such crop. This seem- 
ingly insignificant factor often gives the grape-grower who 
sows cover-crops much trouble in harvest time. 

Se\eral cover-crops may be planted in \'ineyards as clover, 

' For an aofoimt of this experiment, see Bui. 381 of the N. Y. Agr. 
Exp. Sta., Geneva. 



92 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

vetch, oats, barley, cow-horn turnip, rape, rye and buckwheat. 
Combinations of these usually make the seed too costly or 
the trouble of sowing too great. Yet some combinations of 
a leguminous and non-leguminous crop would seem to make 
the best green crop for the grape. Thus, a bushel of oats or 
barley plus ten pounds of clover or twenty pounds of winter 
vetch, a combination often used in orchards, should prove 
satisfactory in the vineyard. Or, doubling the amount of 
seed for each, these crops could be alternated, with a change 
in the rotation every four or six years, with cow-horn turnip 
or rape. Turnip and rape require at least three pounds of 
seed to the acre. 

The cover-crop is sown in midsummer, about the first of 
August in northern latitudes, and should be plowed under in 
the fall or early spring. I'nder no circumstances should the 
green crop be permitted to stand in the vineyard late in the 
spring to rob the vines of food and moisture. The weather 
map must be watched at sowing time to make sure of a moist 
seed-bed. Plate III illustrates two vineyards with well-grown 
cover-crops. 

Tillage 

Grape-growers are not in the fog that befuddles growers 
of tree-fruits in regard to tillage. He is a sloven, indeed, who 
permits his vines to stand a season in unbroken ground, and 
there are no growers who recommend sod or any of the modified 
sod-mulches for the grape. Tillage is difficult in hilly regions 
and the operation is often neglected in hillside vineyards, as 
in the Central Lakes region of New York, but even here some 
sort of tillage is universal. The skip of a single season in till- 
ing stunts the vines, and two or three skips in successive seasons 
ruin a vineyard. No one complains that grapes suffer from 
over-tilling as one frequently hears of tree-fruits. There is no 
tonic for the grape that compares with cultivation when the 



THE VIXEYARD AXD ITS .\[A.\ AdEMEXT 93 

lea\os lack color iiiul haii^ limp and the \inc lias an iii(icfiiial)lc 
air of depression ; and there i-. nothinj^ better than eulti\ation 
to rouse latent \ if:;or in a scorching summer, or when drought 
lays heavy on the land. 

TiUfn/r fools. 

The tools to he used in tilling grapes vary with the topography 
of the vineyard, the kind of soil and the preferences of the 
vineyardist. The best tool is the one with which the ground 
can be well fitted at least expense. Good work in the vineyard 
requires at least two plows, a single-liorse and a two-horse 
plow. The latter, except on very hilly land, should be a gang- 
plow. For commercial vineyards of any considerable size, 
several culti\'ators are necessary for different seasons and 
conditions of the soil. Thus, every vineyard should have a 
spring-tooth and a disc harrow, one of the several types of 
weeders, a one-horse and a sulky cultivator. If weeds abound, 
it is necessary to have some cutting tool, or an attachment to 
one of the cultivators, to slide over the ground and cut oft" large 
weeds. Another indispensable tool in a large vineyard is a 
one-horse grape-hoe, to supplement the work of which there 
must be hea\'y hand-hoes, ^'ery often the surface soil must 
be pulverized, and a clod-crusher, roller or a float becomes 
a necessity. A full complement of bright, sharp tools at the 
command of the grape-grower goes far toward success in his 
business. 

Tillage methods. 

There are several reliable guides indicating when the vine- 
yard needs to be tilled. The vineyardist who is but a casual 
observer of the relation of vineyard operations to the life events 
and the welfare of his vines will take the crop of w'eeds as his 
guide. It is, of course, necessary to keep down the weeds, but 
the man who waits until weeds force him to till will make a 



94 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

poor showing in his vineyard. The amount of moisture in 
the soil is a better guide. The chief function of tillage is to 
save moisture by checking evaporation and to put the soil 
in such condition that its water-holding capacity is increased. 
The physical condition of the land is another guide. Tilling 
when the soil needs pulverizing furnishes a greater feeding 
surface for the roots. 

Tillage begins with plowing in early spring. Whether pro- 
vided with a cover-crop to be turned under or hard and bare, 
the land must be broken each spring with the plow. Plowing 
is best done by running a single furrow with a one-horse plow 
up to or away from the \'ines as occasion calls and then follow- 
ing with a two-horse or a gang-plow. Some growers use a disc 
harrow instead of the plow to break the land in the spring, 
but this is a doubtful procedure in most vineyards and is im- 
possible when a heavy green-crop covers the land. Tillage 
with harrow, cultivator, weeder or roller then proceeds at such 
intervals as conditions demand, seldom less than once a fort- 
night, until time to sow the cover-crop in midsimimer. About 
the time grapes blossom, the grape-hoe should be used to level 
down the furrow turned up to the vines in the spring plowing. 
Tillage should always follow a heavy rain to prevent the forma- 
tion of a soil crust, this being a time when he who tills quickly 
tills twice. The number of times a vineyard should be tilled 
depends on the soil and the season. Ten times over with the 
cultivator in one vineyard or season may not be as effective as 
five times in another vineyard or another season. In some 
regions, as in New York, the grower is so often at the mercy 
of wet weather in early spring that the plowing is best done in 
the fall, and spring operations must then open with harrowing 
with some tool that will break the land thoroughly. 

The depth to till is governed by the nature of the soil and 
the season. Heavy soils need deep tilling ; light soils, shallow 
tilling ; in wet weather, till deeply ; in dry weather, lightly. 



TflE VLWKYARI) AM) ITS M A.\ AdEM EXT 95 

Grape roots arc well down in the soil and there is little daiif:(M" 
of iiijurint; them in deej) tiHage. The depth of i)lo\ving and 
eulti\"atin^ should he \arie(l somewhat from season to season 
to a\()id the formation of a phnv-sole. In some regions plow- 
inij and cnltiviitinti; may l)e made a means of combating insects 
and fungi, and this reguhites the depth of tiUage. Thus, in 
the Chautauqua grape-belt of western New York, tlie pupa of 
the root-worm, a scourge of the grajie in this region, is thrown 
out and destroyed by the grape-hoe just as it is about ready 
to emerge as an adult to lay its eggs on the vines. In all regions, 
leaves and mummied graj^es bearing countless myriads of spores 
of the mildews, black-rot and other fungi are interned by the 
plow and cannot scatter disease. 

The time in the season to stop tillage depends on the locality, 
the season and the variety. It is a good rule to cease cultiva- 
tion a few weeks before the grapes attain full size and begin 
to color, for by this time they will have weighted down the 
vines so that fruit and foliage will be in the way of the cultivator. 
In the North, cultivation ceases in the ordinary season about 
the first of August, earlier the farther south. Rank-growing 
sorts, as Concord or Clinton, do not need to be cultivated as 
late as those of smaller growth and scantier foliage, as Delaware 
or Diamond. The cover-crop seed is covered the last time over 
with the cultivator. Plate IV shows a well-tilled vineyard of 
Concords. 

Irrigation 

The grape, as a rule, withstands drought very well, several 
species growing wild on the desert's edge. Even in the semi- 
arid regions of the far West, where other fruits nnist always 
be irrigated, the grape often grows well without artificial water- 
ing. Irrigation is practiced in vineyards in the Tnited States 
only on the Pacific slo])e and here the practice is not as general 
as with other fruit crops. Whether the grape shall be grown 



96 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

under irrigation or not is a local and often an individual ques- 
tion answered with regard to several conditions; as the local 
rainfall, the depth and character of the soil, the cost of water 
and ease of irrigation. These conditions are all correlated and 
make about the most complex and difficult problem the growers 
of grapes in semi-arid regions have to solve. As long, however, 
as the grape-grower can grow fairly vigorous vines and harvest 
a fairly bountiful crop by natural rainfall, he should not irri- 
gate ; for, even though the crop offsets the cost, there are several 
objections to growing grapes under irrigation. The vines are 
subject to more diseases and physiological troubles ; the fruit 
is said to lack aroma and flavor ; grapes grown on irrigated 
land do not stand shipment well, the unduly inflated grapes 
often bursting ; wine-makers do not like irrigated grapes as 
well as those from non-irrigated lands ; and watery grapes 
from irrigated lands make inferior raisins. It is maintained, 
however, with a show of reason, that grapes suffer in irrigated 
vineyards in the ways set forth only when the vines are over- 
or improperly irrigated. 




X 




CHAPTER VI 
FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES 

As regards fertilizers, the grape-grower has mucli to learn 
and in learning he must approach the problem with humility 
of mind. For in his experimenting, which is the best way to 
learn, he will no sooner arrive at what seems to be a certain 
conclusion, than another season's results or the yields in an 
adjoining vineyard will upset the findings of past seasons and 
those obtained in othei* places, l^ifortunately, there is little 
real knowledge to be obtained on the subject, for grape-growers 
have not yet broken away from time-worn dictums in regard 
to fertilizers and still follow recommendations drawn from work 
with truck and field crops. This is excused by the fact that 
there have been almost no comprehensive experiments in the 
country with fertilizers for grapes. 

Xo fallacies die harder than the pronouncements of chemists 
a generation ago that fertilizing consists in putting in the soil 
approximately that which the plants take out ; and that the 
chemical composition of the crop affords the necessary guide 
to fertilizing. These two theories are the basis of nearly every 
recommendation that can be found for the use of fertilizers in 
growing crops. The facts applied to the grape, however, are 
that the average tillable soil contains a hundred or a thousand 
times more of the chemical constituents of plants than the 
grape can possibly take from the soil ; and many experiments 
in supplying food to plants show that the chemical composi- 
tion of the plant is not a safe guide to their fertilizer require- 
H 97 



98 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ments. Later teachings in regard to the use of fertihzers are : 
That the quantity of mineral food in a soil may be of far less 
importance than the quantity of water, and that the cultivator 
should make certain that there is sufficient moisture in his 
land so that the mineral salts may be readily dissolved and 
so become available as plant-food ; that far too much im- 
portance has been attached to putting chemicals in the soil 
and too little to the physical condition of the soil, whereby 
the work of bacteria and the solvent action of organic acids 
may make available plant-food that without these agencies is 
unavailable. 

These brief and simple statements introduce to grape-growers 
some of the problems with which they must deal in fertilizing 
grapes, and show what a complex problem of chemistry, physics 
and biology fertilizing the soil is ; how difficult experimental 
work in this field is ; and how cautious workers must be in inter- 
preting results of either experiment or experience. An account 
of an experiment in fertilizing a vineyard may make even more 
plain the difficulties in carrying on experiments in fertilizing 
fruits and the caution that must be observed in drawing con- 
clusions. 

An Experiment in Fertilizing Grapes 

The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is experi- 
menting with fertilizers for grapes at Fredonia, Chautauqua 
County, the chief grape region in eastern America. The ex- 
periment should be of interest to every grape-grower from 
several points of view. It not only shows that there are many 
and difficult problems in fertilizing grapes, but also the results 
of the use of manure, commercial fertilizers and cover-crops in 
a particular vineyard ; it suggests the fertilizers to be used and 
the methods of use ; and it furnishes a plan for an experiment 
by grape-growers who want to try such an experiment and 



FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES 99 

draw their own conclusions. An account of the exi)eriinent 
and the results for the first five years follows : ' 

Tests (if Frcdonid. 

"In the vineyard at Fredonia eleven plats were laid out in a 
section of the vineyard where inequalities of soil and other con- 
ditions were slight or were neutralized. Each plat included 
three rows (about one-sixth of an acre) and was separated 
from the adjoining plats by a 'buH'er' row not under test. 
One plat in the center of the section ser\ed as a check, and five 
different fertilizer combinations were used on duplicate plats 
at either side of the check. Plats 1 and 7 received lime and a 
complete fertilizer with quick-acting and slow-acting nitrogen ; 
Plats 2 and 8 received the complete fertilizer but no lime ; on 
Plats 3 and 9 potash was omitted from the complete fertilizer 
combination; Plats 4 and 10 received no phosphorus; Plats 
5 and 1 1 , no nitrogen ; and Plat 6 was the check. The materials 
were applied at such rates that they pro\ided for the first year 
72 pounds of nitrogen per acre, 25 pounds of phosphorus and 
59 pounds of potassium ; and for each of the last four years 
two-thirds as much nitrogen and phosphorus and eight-ninths 
as much potassium. The lime was applied the first and fourth 
years in quantity to make a ton to the acre annually. Cover- 
crops were sown on all plats alike and were plowed under in 
late April or early ]May of each year. These differed in suc- 
cessive years, but included no legumes. The crops used were 
rye, wheat, barley and cowhorn turnips separately and the 
last two in combination. 

"The cultivation differed only in thoroughness from that 
generally used in the Belt, the aim being to maintain a good 
dust mulch during the whole growing season. Pruning by 
the Chautauqua System was done throughout by one man, 
who pruned solely according to the vigor of the individual 
' Quoted from Bui. No. 381, N. Y. Agr. E.\p. Sta. 



100 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



vines and left four, two or three, or no fruiting canes as 
appeared best. The ^'ineyard was thoroughly sprayed, all 
plats alike. 

"Low winter temperatures, affecting immature wood and 
buds caused by unfa^'orable weather of the previous season, 
reduced yields materially during two of the five years, and 
practically neutralized any anticipated benefit from fertilizers. 
Following the first of these low-crop years, came a season, 
1911, in which favorable conditions, acting upon vines left 
undiminished in vigor by the light crop of the previous 
year resulted in heavy and quite uniform yields on all 
the plats. 

" The yields for the five years are shown in Table I ; and a 
summary showing the average gains from each treatment is 
given in Table II, with the average financial balance after de- 
ducting the cost of fertilizer application from the increased 
returns from the plats receiving them. 

Table I. — Yield of Grapes (Tons per Acre) in Fertilizer 

Experiments 



Plat. 

No. 



3 
4 
5 
G 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 



Complete fertilizer ; lime 
Complete fertilizer . . 
Nitrogen and phosphoru? 
Nitrogen and potash 
Phosphorus and potash 

Cheek 

Complete fertilizer ; lime 
Complete fertilizer . 
Nitrogen and phosphorus 
Nitrogen and potash 
Phosphorus and potash 



1909 


1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


4.48 


2.10 


5.37 


3.46 


2.14 


4.7G 


2.21 


5.71 


4.30 


2.83 


.5.17 


2.14 


5.61 


4.00 


2.25 


4.2.5 


2.5.5 


5.64 


4.10 


2.85 


.3.41 


2.00 


5.44 


4.35 


1.78 


3.38 


2.10 


5.32 


3.60 


1.24 


4.69 


2.38 


5.62 


4.80 


3.04 


4.66 


2.07 


5.71 


4.98 


2.72 


4.99 


2.04 


5.35 


4.89 


2.61 


4.79 


2.26 


5.91 


4.89 


3.07 


4.99 


1.87 


5.03 


4.21 


1.97 



5-year 
average 

Tons 

3.51 
3.96 
3.83 
3.87 
3.39 
3.12 
4.10 
4.02 
3.97 
4.18 
3.61 



FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES 



lUl 



Table II. — AvERA<iE Increase in Grape Yields and Average 
Financial Gain from Fertilizer Applications 

N = nitrogen, P = phosphorus, K = potassium, Ca = lime. 
Gains in tons per acre. 





N, P. K. 
Ca. 


N, P. K. 


N. P. 


N. K.' 


P. K. 


V'xr^X. plat of pair 
Second plat of pair . 


Tons 
3.51 
4.10 


Tons 

3.9() 

4.02 


Tons 
3.83 
3.97 


Tons 

3.87 
4.18 


Tons 

3.39 
3.61 


A\erage . . . 
Check plat . . . 


3.80 
3.12 


3.97 
3.12 


3.90 
3.12 


4.02 
3.12 


3.50 
3.12 


Average gain . . 
Average financial gain 


.(IS 
S5.82 


.85 
S13.84 


.78 
$14.05 


.90 
$18.54 


.38 
.%.99 



From this last table the benefit from nitrogen appears quite 
evident since every combination in which it appears gives a 
substantial gain over the one from which it is absent. Phos- 
phorus and potassium without the nitrogen, lead to only a 
slight increase over the check ; and lime appears to be of no 
benefit. Financially, the complete fertilizer and lime com 
bination, the nitrogen and phosphorus combination and the 
phosphorus and potassium combination failed to pay their cost 
in five of the ten comparisons ; the complete fertilizer was used 
at a loss four times out of ten ; and the nitrogen and potas- 
sium combination three times out of ten. Lime had no 
appreciable effect on either vines or fruit. 

" Xo effect of the fertilizers on the fruit itself, aside from 
yield, was .shown for the first three years ; but in 1912, and even 
more markedly in 191)^, the fruit from the plats on which 
nitrogen had been used was superior in compactness of cluster, 
size of cluster and size of berry. In 1912 also, when early riix'n- 
ing was a decided advantage, the fruit on the nitrogen plats 
matured earlier than that on the check plats. In 1913 the 



102 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



favorable ripening season and the smaller crop tended to 
equalize the time of ripening on all plats. The grapes on the 
phosphorus-potassium plats were better in quality than those 
in the check plats but not as good as those on the plats where 
nitrogen was used. 

"Other indexes also show plainly the benefit from nitrogen 
in this vineyard ; for size and weight of leaf, weight of wood 
produced and number of fruiting canes left on the vines were 
all greater where fertilizers, and particularly nitrogen, had been 
used. The three-year averages (1911-1913) of the measure- 
ments for these characteristics are shown in Table III : 



Table III. — Comparative Production o:f Leaves, Wood and 
Fruiting Canes on Grape Vines Differently Fertilized 

(Averages for three years.) 



Fertilizer Application 


Leap Weight' 


Wood Pruned' 


Fruiting 
Canes Left' 




Grams. 


Lbs. 




Complete fertilizer ; lime . . 


1,033 


1,295 


2,468 


Complete fertilizer .... 


1,010 


1,367 


2,609 


Nitrogen and phosphorus . . 


1,047 


1,272 


2,585 


Nitrogen and potassium . . 


1,069 


1,401 


2,646 


Phosphorus and potassium 


964 


1,086 


2,326 


Cheek 


930 


915 


2,110 



Cooperative experiments . 

"In order to secure information as to the behavior of fertilizers 
on the different soils of the Grape Belt, cooperative tests were 
carried on in six vineyards owned, respectively, by S. S. Gran- 
din, Westfield ; Hon. C. ]\I. Hamilton, State Line; James Lee, 
Brocton; H. S. Miner, Dunkirk; Miss Frances Jennings, Sil- 

1 Each weight is of 300 green leaves, 5 from each of 60 vines. The 
first leaf beyond the last ckister was selected. 

2 Amount to the acre of wood pruned in fall. 
^ Number to the acre. 



FERTILIZERS FUli CHAFES 103 

ver Creek; aiul J. T. Barnes, Prospeet Station. The soil in 
these vineyards included gravelly loam, shale loam and clay 
loam, all in the Onnkirk series, and the experiments coxered 
from two to two and a half acres in three cases and about iive 
acres in each of tii(> other vineyards. The work continued four 
years in all but one of the experiments, which it was necessary 
to end after the second year. 

"The general plan of the tests was much like that at Yre- 
dt)nia in most of the vineyards, with the additions of plats for 
stable manure and for leguminous and non-leguminous cover 
crops with and without lime. From two to six check plats 
were left for comparison in each vineyard. As already stated 
the results were often inconsistent in duplicate plats in the 
same vineyard, and if one test appeared to point definitely in a 
certain direction, the indication would be negatived by results 
in other vineyards. In these experiments the yield of fruit 
was the only index to the effect of treatments as it was not possi- 
ble to weigh leaves or pruned wood, or to count the canes left. 

"Nitrogen and potassium in combination, which gave the 
largest gains and greatest profit in the Station vineyard at 
Fredonia, showed a 13 per ct. increase in yield on one plat in 
the Jennings vineyard and a 9 per ct. decrease on the other ; 
in the INIiner vineyard this combination apparently resulted in 
a 25 per ct. increase; in the Lee vineyard in a 2i per ct. loss; 
in the Hamilton vineyard a 17 per ct. gain ; and in the Grandin 
vineyard neither gain nor loss. In only two of the five vine- 
yards in which this combination w^as tested was the gain great 
enough to pay the cost of the fertilizer applied. Similar dis- 
crepancies, or absence of profitable gain, mark the use of the 
other fertilizer combinations. 

" Even stable manure, the standby of the farmer and fruit- 
grower, when applied at the rate of five tons per acre each 
spring, and plowed in, did not, on the average, pay for itself. 
Indeed, there were few instances among the 00 comparisons 



104 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

possible, in which more than a very moderate profit could be 
credited to manure. The average increase in yield following 
the application of manure alone was less than a quarter of a 
ton of grapes to the acre ; while the use of lime with the manure 
increased the gain to one-third of a ton i)er acre. The ton of 
lime to the acre annually would not be paid for by the gain of 
175 pounds of grapes. Cover-crops were used in five of the 
six cooperative experiments and proved even less adapted to 
increasing crop yields than did the manure. There was no ap- 
preciable gain, on the average, from the use of mammoth clover ; 
indeed, a slight loss must be recorded for the clover except upon 
the plats which were also limed, and even with the lime the 
average yields on check plats and mammoth clover plats 
differed by only one one-hundredth of a ton. Wheat or barley 
with cowhorn turnips made a slightly better showing, as the 
plats on which these crops were turned under, without lime, 
averaged about one-twentieth of a ton to the acre better than 
the checks. With these non-legumes, lime was apparently a 
detriment, as the plants with the lime yielded a tenth of a ton 
less, on the average, than those without it." 

Practical lessons from the Fredonia experiment. 

From this experiment it becomes clear that the use of fer- 
tilizers in a vineyard is a local problem. General advice is of 
little value. It is evident also that the fertilization of vine- 
yards is so involved with other factors that only carefully 
planned and long continued work will give reliable information 
as to the needs of vines. Indeed, field experiments even in 
carefully selected vineyards, as the cooperative experiments 
show, may be so contradictory and misleading as to be worse 
than useless, if deductions are made from the results of a few 
seasons. The experiment, however, has brought forth informa- 
tion about fertilizing vineyards that ought to be most helpful 
to grape-growers. Thus, the results suggest : 



FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES lOo 

Oil It/ riiiri/anls in good condition respond to fertilizers. 

It is usually waste to make applications of fertilizers iii 
poorly drained vineyards, in such as suffer from winter cold 
or spriiifj frosts, where insect pests are epidemic and uncon- 
trolled or where good care is lacking. The experiments fur- 
nish several examples of inertness, ineffectiveness or failure to 
produce profit when the fertilizers were applied under any of 
the conditions named. They emphasize the importance of pay- 
ing attention to all of the factors on which plant growth is de- 
pendent. Moisture, soil temperature, aeration, the texture of 
the soil, freedom from pests, cold and frosts, as well as the 
supply of food may limit the yield of grapes. 

A vineyard soil, iiwi/ hair a one-sided wear. 

It is certain in some of the experiments and strongly indi- 
cated in others that the soil is having a one-sided wear — that 
only one or a very few of the elements of fertility are lacking. 
The element most frequently lacking is nitrogen. PiXception 
will probably be found in very light sands or gravels which 
are often deficient in potash and the phosphates ; or on soils 
so shallow or of such mechanical texture that the root range of 
the vine is limited ; or in soils so wet or so dry as to limit the 
root range or prevent biological activities. These exceptions 
mean, as a rule, that the soils possessing the unfavorable qual- 
ities are unfitted for grape-growing. The grape-grower should 
try to discover which of the fertilizing elements his soil lacks 
and not waste by using elements not needed. 

Grape soils are often uneven. 

The marked unevenness of the soil in the seven vineyards 
in whicii these experiments were carried on, as indicated by the 
crops and the effects of the fertilizers, furnishes food for thought 
to grape-growers. Maximum profits cannot be approached 



106 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

in vineyards in which the soil is as uneven as in these, which 
were in every case selected because there was an appearance 
of uniformity. A problem before grape-growers is to make 
uniform all conditions in their vine^^ards, and the vines must 
be kept free from pests if fertilizers are to be profitably used. 

How a gmpe-groiver may know when his vines need fertilizers. 

A grape-grower may assume that his vines do not need fer- 
tilizers if they are vigorous and making a fair annual growth. 
When the vineyard is found to be failing in vigor, the first step 
to be taken is to make sure that the drainage is good ; the second 
step, to control insect and fungous pests; the third, to give 
tillage and good care ; and the fourth step is to apply fertilizers 
if they be found necessary. Few vineyards will be found to 
require a complete fertilizer. What the special requirements 
of a vineyard are can be ascertained only by experiment and 
are probably not ascertainable by analyses of the soil. This 
experiment furnishes suggestions as to how the grape-grower 
may test the value of fertilizers in his own vineyard. 

Applying fertilizers. 

When it is certain that vines need fertilization, and what is 
wanted is known, the fertilizers should be put on in the spring 
and be worked in by the spring cultivation. Stable manure 
should be plowed under. Grape roots forage throughout the 
whole top layer of soil so that the land should be covered with 
the fertilizer, whether chemical or barnyard manure. Applica- 
tions of commercial fertilizers are generally spread broadcast, 
though it is better to drill them in if the foliage is out on the 
vines and thus avoid possible injury to tender foliage. Com- 
mercial fertilizers should be mixed thoroughly and in a finely 
divided state. In leachy soils, nitrate of soda ought not to be 
applied too early in the season, as it will quickly wash down 
out of reach of the grape roots. 




Plate VIII. — Brighton (Xfl 



FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES 107 

Over- rich soils. 

Some soils are too rich for the grape. On these the growtli is 
over-luxuriant, tiie wood does not mature in the autumn, fruit- 
buds do not form and the fruit is poor in (luality. Certain 
varieties can stand a richer soil than others. Over-richness is 
a trouble that may cure itself as the vines come in full bearing 
and make greater demands on the soil for food. It is well, 
however, on a soil that is suspected of being too rich or so 
proved by the behavior of the vines, to provide an extra wire 
on the trellis, to prune little and thus take care of the rampant 
growth. Some soils, however, and this is often the case, are 
so rich that the grape cannot be made to thrive in them ; the 
vines waste their substance in riotous living, producing luxuri- 
ant foliage and lusty wood but little or no fruit. 



CHAPTER VII 
PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 

The inexperienced look on pruning as a difficult operation 
in grape-growing. But once a few fundamentals are grasped, 
grape-pruning is not difficult. There is much less perplexity 
in pruning the grape than in pruning tree-fruits. Pruning fol- 
lows accepted patterns in every grape region, and when the 
pattern is learned the difficulties are easily overcome. The 
inexperienced are confused by the array of "principles," 
"types," "methods," "systems" and the many technical 
terms that enter into discussions of grape-pruning. Some of 
the technicalities come from European practices, and others 
originated in the infancy of grape-growing in this country when 
there was great diversity in pruning. Divested of much that 
is but jargon, an inexperienced man can easily learn in a few 
lessons, from word of mouth or printed page, how to prune 
grapes. 

The simplicity of pruning has led to slighting the work in 
commercial vineyards, by too often trusting it to unskilled 
hands. Then, too, in this age of power-propelled tools, pride 
in hand labor has been left behind, and few grape-growers 
now take time and trouble to become expert in pruning. 
Simple as the work may seem to those long accustomed 
to it, he who wants to put into his pruning painstaking intel- 
ligence and to taste the joy of a task well done finds in this 

108 



PRUXIXr; THE (.'RAPE I\ EASTERN AMERICA 100 

vineyard operation an ample field for j)leasure and for the de- 
velopment of greater profits. The price to be paid by those 
who would thus attempt ixM'fection in pruning the vine is 
forward vision, the tn<M-hanic's eye, the ga?'dener's toucli, 
patience, and pride in handicraft. 

Simple as pruning is, the pruner soon learns that it is an art 
in which perfection is better known in mind than followed in 
deed. The theory is easy but there are some stumbling blocks 
to make its consummation difficult. It is an art in which 
rules do not suffice, for no two vineyards can be pruned alike 
in amount or method, and every grape-grower finds his vine- 
yard a proper field for the gratification of his taste in j^runing. 
Happily, however, enlightened theory and sound practice are 
in perfect accord in grape-priming, so that specific advice is 
well founded on governing principles. 

One cannot, of course, learn to prune unless he understands 
the habit of the grape-vine and is familiar with the terms ap- 
plied to the different parts of the vine. As a preliminary to 
this chapter, therefore, knowledge of Chapter XVII, in which 
the structure of the grape-vine is discussed, is necessary. The 
next step is to distinguish between pruning and training. 

Pruning and Training Distinguished 

The grape is pruned to increase in various wa>s the economic 
value of the plant by increasing the quantity and value of the 
crop. This is pruning proper. Or grapes are i)runed to make 
well-proportioned plants with the parts so disposed that the 
vines are to the highest degree manageable in the vineyard. 
This is training. To repeat, the grape-plant is pruned to regu- 
Iite the crop; it is trained to regulate the vine. Grape-grow- 
ers usually speak of both operations as "pruning," but it is 
l)etter to keep in mind the two conceptions. The distinctions 
between pruning and training nmst be made more apparent by 



110 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

setting forth in greater detail the results attained by the two 
operations. 

Results attained in ynining to recjidate the crop. 

Proper pruning of vines in their first year in the vineyard, 
which, as we have seen, consists of cutting the young plants 
back severely, brings the vines in productive bearing a year or 
two years earlier than they would have borne had the pruning 
been neglected. This early pruning, since it is done with an eye 
to the vigor of each vine, insures greater uniformity in the growth 
and productiveness of the vineyard. Uniformity thus brought 
about is important not only for the time being, but for the fu- 
ture development of the vines, since weak vines, if unpruned, 
are stunted and may require years to overtake more vigorous 
vines in the vineyard. 

The quality of the crop may be regulated by pruning. When 
vines bear too heavily, the grapes are small, and wine-makers 
have found that they seldom develop sugar and flavor as do 
grapes on vines not overbearing. Grapes on vines too heavily 
laden seldom ripen or color well. Not only are the grapes on 
poorly pruned and unpruned vines poor in quality but the 
grapes on such vines are usually not well distributed and there- 
fore ripen and color unevenly. The results just mentioned 
follow because the bunches in a poorly distributed crop receive 
varying amounts of light and heat depending on the distance 
from the ground, the distance from the trunk and on the amount 
of shade. 

Pruning may be used to regulate the quantity of grapes 
borne in a vineyard and so be made somewhat helpful in pre- 
venting alternate bearing. Abnormally large crops are usually 
followed by partial crop failure and biennial bearing some- 
times sets in, but the large crop may be reduced by pruning 
and the evil consequences wholly or partly avoided. It fol- 
lows that pruning must depend much on the vigor of the vine ; 



PRUNING THE CRAPE IS EASTERN AMERICA 111 

for a weak vino nia\ hv so pruned as to cause it to overbear; 
and, on the other hand, a \igoroiis \ine pruned in the same way 
might not hear at all. 

Results attained in pruning to regulate the trine. 

It is necessary to regulate the shape of the vine by training 
so that tilling, spraying, pruning and harvesting can be easily 
performed and the crop be kept off the ground. The cost of 
production is always less in a well-pruned vin(>yard becau.se aJI 
vineyard oj)erations arc more easily carried out. 

The life of a vineyard is lengthened when the vines are well 
trained, because when the parts of a \inc are properly disposed 
on trellis or sti>ke the plants are less often injured in vineyard 
operations, ^[oreover, not infrequently vines die from over- 
production and consequent breaking of canes or trunks which 
might have been prevented by pruning to shape the vine. 
Suckers and water-sprouts are less common on well-trained 
vines. It is necessary, too, by training to keep the bunches 
away from trunk, canes and other bunches and so prevent 
injury to the grapes. 

Lastly, fashion, taste or a more or less abnormal use of the 
grapes, may prescribe the form in which a vine is trained. 
F'ashion and taste run from very simple or natural styles to 
exceedingly complex, formal ones, depending, often, on the 
variety, the environment or other condition, but just as often 
on the whim of the grape-grower. The grape is a favorite orna- 
mental for fences, arbors and to cover buildings ; for all of 
these purposes the vines must be trained as occasion calls. 

Some Principles of Pruning 

I^eaving the shaping of the plant out of consideration and 
having in mind pruning proper, all efforts in pruning are di- 
rected toward two objects : (1) The production of leafy shoots 



112 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE^GROWING 

to increase the vigor of the plant. (2) The promotion of the 
formation of fruit-buds. The first, in common parlance, is 
pruning for wood ; the second, pruning for fruit. 

Pruning for wood. 

Some grapes, in common with varieties of all fruits, produce 
excessive crops of fruit so that the plants exhaust themselves, 
to their permanent injury and to the detriment of the crop. 
Something must be done to restore and increase vegetative 
vigor. The most natural procedure is to lessen the struggle for 
existence among the parts of the plant. The richer and the 
more abundant the supply of the food solution, the greater 
the vegetative activity, the larger the leaves and the larger and 
stouter the internodes. Obviously, the supply of food solu- 
tion for each bud may be increased by decreasing the number of 
buds. The weaker the plants, therefore, the more the vine 
should be cut. The severe pruning in the first two years of the 
vine's existence is an example of pruning for wood. The vine 
is pruned for wood in the resting period between the fall of leaf 
and the swelling of buds the following spring. 

Pruning for fruit. 

Growers of all fruits soon learn that excessive vegetative 
vigor is not usually accompanied by fruitfulness. Too great 
vigor is indicated by long, leafy, unbranching shoots. Some 
fruit-growers go so far as to say that fruitfulness is inversely 
proportionate to vegetative vigor. There are several methods 
of diminishing the vigor of the vine ; as, withholding water 
and fertilizers, stopping tillage, the method of training and by 
pruning. Pruning is used to decrease the vigor of the vine, 
in theory at least, for the practice is not always so successful, 
by pruning the roots or by summer-pruning the shoots. 

Root-pruning the grape at intervals of several years is a 
regular practice with some varieties in warm countries, Eu- 



PRUNING THE GRAPE IX EASTERN AMERICA 113 

rope more especially, but is seldom or iu'\'er i)nicticetl in Aiiier- 
ica except when planting and when roots arise from tiie (^((n 
ah(ne the union of stock and cion. 

Sunnner-pruning to induce fruitfulness consists in removing 
new shoots with newl\ dexeloped leaves. These young shoots 
have been developed from reserve material stored up the pre- 
ceding season, and until they are so far developed that they can 
perform the functions of leaves they are to be counted as para- 
sites. When, therefore, these shoots are pruned or pinched 
away, the plant is robbed of the material used by the lusty shoot 
which up to this time has given nothing in return. The vigor 
of the plant is thus checked and fruitfulness increased. Sum- 
mer-pruning may become harmful if delayed too long. The 
time to prune is past with the grape when the leaves have passed 
from the light green color of new growth to the dark green of 
mature leaves. 

Fruit-bearing may be augmented by bending, twisting or 
ringing the canes, since all of these operations diminish vegeta- 
tive vigor. Ringing is the only one of these methods in general 
use, and this only for some special variety or special purpose, 
anil usually with the result that the vigor of the vine is dimin- 
ished too much for the good of the plant. Ringing is discussed 
more fully in Chapter XVI. 

The manner of fruit-hearing in the grape. 

Before attempting to prune, the pruner must understand 
precisely how the grape bears its crop. The fruit is borne near 
the base of the shoots of the current season, and the shoots are 
borne on the wood of the previous year's growth coming from 
a dormant bud. Here is manifested one of Nature's energy- 
saving devices, shoot, leaves, flowers and fruit spring in a short 
season from a single bud. In the light of this fact, pruning 
should be looked on as a simple problem to be solved mathe- 
matically and not as a puzzle to be untangled, as so many re- 
I 



114 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

gard it. For an example, a problem in pruning is here stated 
and solved. 

A thrifty grape-vine should yield, let us say, fifteen pounds 
of grapes, a fair average for the mainstay varieties. Each bunch 
will weigh from a quarter to a half pound. To produce fifteen 
pounds on a vine, therefore, will require from thirty to sixty 
bunches. As each shoot will bear two or three bunches, from 
fifteen to thirty buds must be left on the canes of the precedirg 
year. These buds are selected in pruning on one or more canes 
distributed on one or two main stems in such manner as the 
pruner may choose, but usually in accordance with one or 
another of several well-developed methods of training. Pru i- 
ing, then, consists in calculating the number of bunches a: d 
buds necessary and removing the remainder. In essei ee 
pruning is thinning. 

Horizontal versus perpendicular canes. 

An old dictum of viticulture is that the nearer the growing 
parts of the vine approach the perpendicular, the more vigorous 
the parts. The terminal buds, as every grape-grower knows, 
grow very rapidly and probably absorb, unless checked, more 
than their share of the energy of the ^'ine. This tendency can 
be checked somewhat by removing the terminal buds, which 
also helps to keep the plants within manageable limits, but is 
better controlled by training the canes to horizontal positions. 
Grape canes are tied horizontally to wires to make the vines 
more manageable and to reduce their vigor and so induce fruitful- 
ness ; they are trained vertically to increase the vigor of the vine. 

Winter-pruning. 

Winter-pruning of the vineyard may be done at any time from 
the dropping of the leaves in the autumn to the swelling of the 
buds in the spring. The sap begins to circulate actively in the 
grape early in the spring, even to the extremities of the vine, 



is_ 


' 


^^^» 


^^c^ 


_J 


^^^Bk^S^i^"' 




:fA 




\ 


-^^iihNi^ :;'<^^^ 


M 


^^ 


MSIm^ 


l! f 










Py» _^ 








w 



Plate IX. — Campbell Eurly (X|). 



PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 115 

aiul most grape-growers believe this sap to he a "vital stream" 
and that, if the vuie is pruned during its flow, the plant will 
bleed to death. The \ine, however, is at this season of so drop- 
sieal a constitution that the loss of sap is better denominated 
"weeping" than "bleeding." It is doubtful whether serious 
injury results from pruning after the sap begins to flow, but it 
is a safe practice to prune earlier and the work is certainly 
pleasanter. The vine should not be pruned when the wood is 
frozen, since at this time the canes are brittle and easily broken 
in handling. On the other hand, it is well to delay pruning in 
northern climates until after a heavy freeze in the autumn, to 
winterkill and wither innnature wood so that it can be re- 
moved in pruning. 

Summer-pnuiing. 

There are three kinds of summer-pruning, the removal of 
superfluous shoots, heading-in canes to keep the vines in man- 
ageable limits and the pruning to induce fruitfulness discussed 
on a foregoing page, which need not have further consideration. 
It is very essential that the grower keep these three purposes 
in mind, especially as there is much dispute as to the necessity 
of two of these operations. 

All agree that the vine usually bears superfluous shoots that 
should be removed. These are such as spring from small, 
weak buds or from buds on the arms and trunk of the vine. 
These shoots are useless, devitalize the vine, and hinder vine- 
yard operations. A good practice is to rub oft' the buds from 
which these shoots grow as they are detected, but in most vine- 
yards the vines must be gone over from time to time as the 
shoots appear. Still another kind of superfluous shoots, which 
ought to be removed as they appear, are those which grow from 
the base of the season's shoots, the so-called secondary or axil- 
lary shoots. These are usually "broken out" at the time the 
shoots from weak buds are removed. 



116 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

While there is doubt as to the vahie of heading-back the 
vine in the summer for the sole purpose of inducing fruitful- 
ness, there can be no doubt that it is desirable for the purpose 
of keeping some varieties within bounds. Heading-back is 
not now the major operation it once was, the need of severe 
cutting being obviated by putting the vines farther apart, by 
training high on three or even four wires and by adopting one 
of the drooping systems of training. The objections to head- 
ing-back in the summer are that it often unduly weakens the 
vines, that it may induce a growth of laterals which thicken 
the vines too much, and that it delays the maturing of the 
wood. These bad effects, however, can be overcome by prun- 
ing lightly and doing the work so late in the season that lateral 
growths will not start. Most vineyardists who keep their 
plantations up find it necessary to head back more or less, de- 
pending on the season and the variety. The work is usually 
done when the over-luxuriant shoots begin to touch the ground. 
The shoots are then topped off with a sickle, corn-cutter or 
similar tool. 

Renewing Fruiting Wood 

There are two ways of renewing the fruiting wood on a 
grape-vine, by canes and from spurs. The manner of renew- 
ing refers to pruning and not to training, for either can be used 
in any method of training. 

Cane renewals. 

Renewal by canes is made each year by taking one or more 
canes, cut to the desired number of buds, to supply bearing 
shoots. By this method the most of the bearing wood is re- 
moved each year, new canes taking the place of the oid. These 
renewal canes may be taken either from the head of the vine or 
from the ground, though the latter is little used except where 



PRUMXG THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 117 



vines must hv laid down for winter protection. Canes may be 
renewed indefinitely, if care is exercised in keeping the stubs 
short, without enlarging the head from which the canes are 
taken out of i)roportion to the size of the trunk. Renewing 
by canes is a more common method than renewal by spurs, 
as will be found in the discussion of methods of training. 

Spnr renewal. 

In renewing by spurs, a permanent arm is established to 
right and left on the canes. Shoots on this arm are not permit- 
ted to remain as canes but are cut back to spurs in the dor- 
mant pruning. Two buds are left at this pruning, both of which 
will produce bearing shoots ; the lower one, however, is not 
suffered to do so but is kept to furnish the spur for the next 
season. The shoot from the upper bud is cut away entirely. 
When this process is 
carried on from year to 
year, the spurs become 
longer and longer until 
they become unwieldy. 
Occasionally, however, 
haj>py chance permits 
the selection of a shoot 
on the old wood for a 
new spur. Failing in 

this, a new arm must Fig. 1.3. vine ready for pruning; i, the 

be laid down and the S^f'"; ff-/Tms: ^/. canes; s. shoots; b, spurs. 
The faint hnes near the bases of the canes in- 
spurring goes on as be- dicate the points where they should be pruned 
fore. The objections off in the winter, leaving spurs for the produc- 
*■ tion of shoots tlif loUowiiig season. 

to renewing by spurs 

are: it is often difficult to replace spurs with new wood, and 
the bearing portion of the vine gets farther and farther from 
the trunk. For these reasons, spur-renewing is generally in 
disfavor with commercial grape-growers, though it is still used 




118 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

in one or two prominent methods of training, as will be dis- 
covered in this discussion. Figure 13 shows a vine ready for 
pruning. 

The Work of Pruning 

The pruner may take his choice between several styles of 
hand pruning-shears with which to do his work. The knife 
is seldom used except in summer-pruning, and here, more 
often, the shoots are broken out or pinched out. In winter- 
pruning, the cane is cut an inch or thereabout beyond the 
last bud it is desired to leave ; otherwise the bud may die from > 
the drying out of the cane. The canes are usually allowed to 
remain tied to the wires until the pruning is done, though 
growers who use the Kniffin method of training may cut them 
loose before they prune. Two men working together do the 
work of pruning best. The more skilled of the two severs 
the wood from the bearing vine, leaving just the number of 
buds desired for the next season's crop. The less skilled man 
cuts tendrils and severs the cut canes from each other so that 
the prunings may be moved from the vineyard without trouble 
by the "stripper." 

Not the least of the tasks of pruning is "stripping" the 
brush and getting it out of the vineyard. The prunings cling 
to the trellis with considerable tenacity and must be pulled 
loose with a peculiar jerk, learned by practice, and placed on 
the ground between the rows. Stripping is done, usually by 
cheap labor, at any time after the pruning until spring, but 
must not be delayed until growth starts or the young buds may 
suffer as the cut wood is torn from the trellis. The brush is 
hauled to the end of the row by hand or by horse-power applied 
to any one of a dozen devices used in the several grape regions. 
One of the best is the device in common use in the Chautauqua 
vineyards of western New York. A pole, twelve feet long, four 
inches in diameter at the butt and two at the top, is bored with 



PRUNING THE (IRAFE IN EASTERN AMERICA 119 



an inch hole four tVct from tlie hutt. A liorso is hitched to 
this pole by a rope (h-awn tliroiiuli tlic hole, and the i)ole, hntt 
to the ground, is then , ^ 

pulled between rows, mL w _ ^ iJc'ls?"? 

the small end being 
held in the right hand. 
The pole, when skill- 
fully used, collects 
the brush, which is 
dumped at the end 
of the row by letting the small end fly over towards the horse. 
The " go-devil," shown in Fig. 14, is another common device 
for collecting prunings. 




Fig. 14. A "go-devil" for collecting prunings. 



The Trellis 

The trellis is a considerable item in the grape-grower's bud- 
get, since it must be renewed e^■ery fifteen years or thereabouts. 
Wires are strung in the North at the end of the second season 
after planting, but in the South the growth is often so great 
that the wires must be put up at the end of the first season. 
Trellises are of the same general style for commercial vineyards ; 
namely, two or three wires tautly stretched on firmly set posts. 
Occasionally slat trellises are put up in gardens but these are 
not to be recommended for any but ornamental purposes. 

Posts. 

Strong, durable posts of chestnut, locust, cedar, oak or reen- 
forced cement are placed at such distance apart that two or 
three vines can be set between each two posts. The distance 
apart depends on the distance between vines, although the 
tendency now is to have three vines between two posts. The 
posts are from six to eight feet in length, the heaviest being 
used as end posts. In hard stony soils it may be necessary to 



120 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



set the end posts with a spade, but usually sharpened posts can 
be driven into holes made with a crow-bar. In driving, the 
operator stands on a wagon hauled by a horse and uses a ten- or 
twelve-pound maul. The posts are driven to a depth of eight- 
een or twenty-four inches for the end posts. However set, 
the posts must stand firm to hold the load of vines and fruit. 
The end posts must be braced. As good a brace as any is made 







:>^ ^^ ,ii v= ^A 'V/ 



m 






^- ■":i^<'Ml^^¥W'^*''^^":^^' 








Fig. 15. A trellis and a common method of bracing end posts. 

from a four-by-four timber, notched to fit the post halfway up 
from the ground, and extending obliquely to the ground, where 
it is held by a four-by-four stake. A two-wire trellis and a 
common method of bracing end posts are shown in Fig. 15. 
The posts on hillsides must lean slightly up-hill, otherwise 
they will almost certainly sooner or later tilt down the 
slope. The posts are usually permitted to stand a little higher 
at first than necessary so that they may be driven down 
should occasion call; driving is usually done in the early 
spring. 



PRUMXG THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 121 

Wire for ilir freUis. 

Four sizes of wire arc in common use for vineyard trellises ; 
nos. 9, 10, 11 and 12. Number 9, the heaviest, is often used 
for the top wire with lighter wires lower. The following figures 
show the length of wire in a ton : 

No. 9. 34,48;^ ft. No. 11, 52,352 ft. 

No. 10, 41,408 ft. No. 12, 68,493 ft. 

From these figures the number of pounds required to the acre 
is easily calculated. Common annealed wire makes a durable 
trellis, but many growers prefer the more durable galvanized 
wire, the cost of which is slightly greater. The wires are 
fastened to the end posts by winding once around the post, 
and then each wure is firmly looped about itself; they are se- 
cured to the intervening posts by ordinary fence staples so 
driven that the wire cannot pull through of its own weight but 
with space enough to permit tightetiing from season to season. 
The size and length of the staples depend on whether the posts 
are hard or soft wood. The longest and largest staples are 
used with soft woods, as cedar or chestnut. An acre requires 
from nine to twelve pounds of staples. The wires should be 
placed on the windward sides of posts and on the up-hill side in 
hillside vineyards. The distance between wires depends on 
the method of pruning. 

The wires must be stretched taut on the posts, for \\hi( h 
purpose any one of a half-dozen good wive stretchers may be 
purchased at hardware stores. Some growers loosen the wires 
after harvest to allow for the contraction in cold weather and 
others use .some one of several devices to relieve the strain. 
Most growers, however, find it necessary to go over the vine- 
yard each spring to drive down loosened posts and stretch 
sagging wires, and so take no precautions to release wires in 
the fall. All agree that the wires must be kept tight during 



122 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

the growing season to protect buds, foliage and fruit from 
being injured from whipping. 

Tying. 

The canes are tied to the trellis in early spring, and under 
most systems of pruning the growing shoots are tied in the 
summer. This work is done by cheap men, women, boys and 
girls. A great variety of material is used to make the tie, as 
raffia, wooltwine, willow, inner bark of the linden or bass- 
wood, green rye straw, corn husks, carpet-rags and wire. The 
same materials are not usually employed for both canes and 
shoots, since the canes are tied firmly to hold them steady and 
the work is done early before there is danger of breaking swell- 
ing buds, while the summer shoots are tied to hold for a shorter 
time and more loosely to permit growth in diameter. Tying 
usually follows accepted patterns in one region but varies 
greatly in different regions. There is a knack to be learned in 
the use of each one of the materials named, but with none is it 
diflficult, and an ingenious person can easily contrive a tie of 
his own to suit fancy or conditions. 




Plate X. — Clinton (X§). 



CHAPTER VIII 

METHODS OF TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN 
AMERICA 

The grape-grower takes great liberties with Nature in train- 
ing his plants. Xo other fruit is so completely transformed 
by the grower's art from its natural habit of growth. Happily, 
the grape endures cutting well, and the pruner may rest as- 
sured that he may work his will in pruning his vines, following 
to his heart's desire a favorite method with little fear of seri- 
ously injuring his vines.. Because of its accommodation to the 
desires of man in the disposition of the vine, there are many 
methods of training the grape; there being in the commercial 
vineyards of eastern America a dozen or more. HoAvever, 
the differences and similarities are so marked that the several 
methods fall into a simple classification which makes con- 
spicuous their chief features. Thus, all of the methods fall 
under two chief heads: (1) The disposition of shoots; (2) the 
disposition of canes. 

The disposition of shoots. 

Bearing shoots are disposed of in three ways in training 
grapes; shoots upright, shoots drooping, and shoots hori- 
zontal. The terms explain themscKcs, but the three methods 
nee<l amplification since their adoption is not optional with 
growers but depends on several circumstances. 

Shoots are trained upright in several methods in which two 
or more arms or canes are laid to right and left, sometimes 

123 



124 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

horizontally, sometimes obliquely along or across horizontal 
wires. As the shoots grow upward, they are tied to wires 
above. The upright methods are supposed to distribute the 
bearing wood more evenly on the vines and to insure greater 
imiformity in the fruit. In the upright methods, also, the canes 
and arms are left nearer the ground, which is thought to be 
an advantage in small, weak or slow-growing varieties. Dela- 
ware, Gatawba, lona and Diana are examples of varieties 
thought to grow best when trained to one of the upright 
methods. 

In the several methods in which the shoots droop, however 
the canes may be disposed, the shoots are not tied but are 
allowed to droop at will. These methods are comparatively 
new but are being rapidly adopted because of several marked 
advantages. ITsually one less wire can be used in a drooping 
method than in an upright one ; since the shoots are not tied, 
much labor is saved in summer tying; the ground can be 
tilled with less danger to the vines; and there is less sun- 
scalding of the fruit, since the pendant foliage protects the 
clusters. Grape-growers generally agree that strong-growing 
varieties like Concord, Niagara, Brighton, Diamond and most 
of the hybrids between European grapes and native species 
grow best when the shoots drooji. 

Shoots are trained horizontally in but one recognized method, 
the Hudson Horizontal, to be described in detail later. Since 
this method is all but obsolete,. there is still less reason for dis- 
cussing it here, the expressive name sufficing for present pur- 
poses. 

Disposition of canes. 

There are many recognized methods of disposing of the canes 
in training the grape. The chief of these are discussed in the 
pages that follow, their names being set down for the present 
in the classification that follows. 



rRAlXlXa (,'IiAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 125 

CLASSIFICATION' OF MFTIIODS OF TRAINING THE 
GRAI'K IX EASTERN AMERICA 

I. Shoots upriKhl : 

1. Chautauqua Ann. 

2. Ktnika llitjli Itcnowal. 
A. Fan. 

II. Shoots drooping : 

1. SintjU'-stcm, P^ou --cano Kniffin. 

2. Two-stem, Four-cant' Kniffin. 

3. Umbrella Knitliu. 

4. Y-stem Kniffin. 

5. Munson. 
III. Shoots horizontal : 

1. Hudson Horizontal. 

/, Shoots upright 

Systematic training of the grape in America began toward 
the middle of the nineteenth century with a method in which 
the shoots were trained upright from two permanent hori- 
zontal arms. These arms are lai<l to right and left on a low 
wire and bear more or less ])ermanent spurs, from each of which 
two shoots are produced each season to bear the crop. The 
number of spurs left on each arm depends on the vigor of the 
vine and the space between vines. As the shoots grow up- 
ward, they are tied to upper wires, there being three wires on 
the trellis for tliis method. This method is now known as the 
Horizontal Arm Spur. It has a serious fault in its trouble- 
some spurs and has almost entirely given way to a modifica- 
tion called the Chautauqua Arm method, much used in the 
great Chautauqua grape-belt. As one of the chief methods 
of training the grape in eastern America, this must be de- 
scribed in detail. 

The Chautauqua Arm method. 

The trellis for this method has two wires, although occasion- 
ally three are used. The lower wire is eighteen or twenty 



126 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

inches above the ground and the second thirty-four inches 
above the lower. If three are used, the wires are twenty 
inches apart. F. E. Gladwin, in charge of the vineyard lab- 
oratory of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station 
at Fredonia, in the heart of the Chautauqua belt, describes 
this method of training as follows : 

"The vines are cut back to two buds at each pruning the 
first two years. If the vines are vigorous two canes are tied 
up at the beginning of the third year ; if scant, but one is left 
and this, if the growth is extremely unfavorable, is cut back 
to two buds. The canes are carried up obliquely to the upper 
wire when the growth permits and are there firmly tied either 
with twine or fine wire, the latter being more commonly used. 
The canes are also loosely tied to the lower wire. The pruning 
for the fourth year consists in cutting away all but two or three 
canes and a number of spurs from the arms formed by tying 
up the two canes the previous year. The vine now consists of 
two arms, arising from near the ground, with two or three 
canes of the previous year, and several two-bud spurs at in- 
tervals along the arms. As far as possible such canes as have 
arisen but a short distance above the lower wire are selected. 
All the old wood projecting beyond the last cane retained on 
each of the arms is cut away. The arms of the third year are 
bent down from their oblique position and are tied firmly to 
the lower wire, to the right and left of the center of the vine. 
These are now permanent arms. The vine at this time consists 
of two arms, arising from near the ground, tied to the lower 
wire to the right and left of the center, and on these are two 
or three canes, pruned long enough to reach to the middle 
wire at least, and if possible to the upper. They are tied so 
that they stand in a vertical or oblique position. Along the 
arms at intervals of a few inches are spurs, consisting of two 
buds. If the vineyardist maintains the arms permanently, 
these spurs furnish the fruiting wood for the succeeding year. 



TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 127 

"At the pruning for the fifth year one of the arms is cut away 
entirely, close to the point of its origin. The remaining arm, 
reaching from the ground to a point a few inches below the 
level of the lower wire, now becomes the permanent stem. 
The vineyardist must now proA'ide for the arm cut away. 
This is done by the selection of a cane, arising from the re- 
maining arm at a point below the lower wire, either directly. 




Fig. 16. Chautauqua training; ^nne ready to prune. 

or from a spur left for the purpose. This is pruned to reach 
the top wire and is tied obliquely to it. This cane at the next 
pruning is tied down to the lower wire and becomes the second 
arm. Then the same selection of canes and spurs is made from 
it as was made at the previous pruning, and the canes are tied 
up as before. However, if the grower desires to retain both 
arms of the preceding year for a few years, canes that have 
grown from the spurs may l)e tied up and provision made for 
the following year through further spurring. If but a single 



128 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

arm is retained, it is pruned in the same way. Spurs may be 
obtained from canes that have arisen from dormant buds on 
the arm, or by spurring in the basal canes of the fruiting wood 
of the year previous. A combination of both methods of re- 
newal will in the long run work out the better, as the repeated 
spurring in of the basal canes will result in greatly lengthened 
spurs that will require frequent cutting out. While the canes 
that arise directly from dormant buds on wood two years and 
over are not necessarily the best fruiting ones, they can, how- 
ever, be utilized for renewal purposes. 

" The ideal vine pruned to this system now consists of a stem 
reaching from sixteen or eighteen inches above the ground 
level or a few inches below the level of the lower wire. 
Such a vine is shown in Figure 16. From the head two 
arms arise, one extending to the right, the other to the left 
and tied along the lower wire, each arm not extending for 
more than two feet and a half to either side of the head. 
From the arms two canes on each are tied vertically or 
obliquely to the top wire. In addition there are left two or 
three spurs, growing from the upper side of each arm, located 
at well-spaced intervals starting close to the head ; these may 
be used for the renewal of the arms. The shoots are not tied. 

"One of the chief faults of the Chautauqua Arm method is 
the tendency of the best matured, and most desirable canes 
to develop at or near the upper wire, while those lower down 
are often too short, or so poorly matured as to be unfitted for 
fruiting purposes. Wlien the wood, bearing the well-developed 
upper canes, is brought down for arms, a considerable interval 
of the arm from the head to the point where the canes arise is 
without fruiting wood. Under such conditions the growth will 
be again thrown to the extremities. If spurring on the arms 
has been practiced, this undesirable condition is eliminated. 
With either type of renewal, spurring should be practiced. 
The fruit from vines trained by this method reaches its highest 



TRAIXIXG GRAPES IX EASTERX AMERICA 129 

(levelopiiu'iit at or near the level of tiic U])per wire, that on the 
lower shoots is, as a rule, quite inferior. This comes from 
the fact that the sap flow is more vigorous at these upper points, 
resulting; in more and healthier leaves, which, in turn, influence 
the fruit for the better." 

Kriihd Uicjh Rencival. 

Several methods of training pass under tlie general term 
"High Renewal," the significance of which becomes apparent 
in the discussion of the Keuka High Renewal method which 
is probably now the most common of the several types. In 
most of these methods the trellis is put up with three wires, 
but occasionally only two wires are used and still less often 
four. The lowest wire on the three-wire trellis is eighteen or 
twenty inches from the ground with twenty-inch intervals 
between wires. Gladwin, who has direct charge of vineyard 
experimental work about Keuka Lake for the New York 
Agricultural Experiment Station, describes current practices 
in pruning according to this method as follow.s : 

"At each pruning for the first two years the vines are cut 
back to two buds. IIowe^'er, with strong-growing varieties 
like (\)ncord, Niagara and Isabella, and under good soil con- 
ditions, the stem may be formed the second year. With moder- 
ate-growing varieties and under average conditions, the forma- 
tion of the stem is left until the third year. The straightest 
and best-matured cane is left for the purpose. Tiiis is carried 
to the lower wire and there firmly tied with willow. As soon 
as the shoots have made sufficient growth they are loosely tied 
to the wires that they may be kept away from the tillage tools. 
The fourth year the head of the vine is formed. This should 
stand a few inches below the lower wire. Two canes grow- 
ing from the stem near this })ositi()n are selected, one being 
tied to the right and the other to the left along the lower wire. 
In the Keuka Lake District, the canes are tied with willows. 



.130 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

In addition, at least two spurs of two buds each are retained 
near the head. With Concord, the canes may carry about 
ten buds each, but with Catawba, as grown on the hillsides of 
the Central Lakes Region of New York, the canes should not 
carry above six buds each. As the shoots develop from the 
horizontal canes, they are tied with rye straw to the middle 
and upper wires. This summer tying is almost continuous 
after the shoots are long enough to reach the middle wire, 

" The following year all the wood is cut away except two or 
three canes that have developed from the basal buds of the canes 
put up the previous year, or that have grown from the spurs. 
In the event of a third cane being retained, it is tied along the 
middle wire. Spurs are again maintained close to the head 
for renewal purposes. The other two canes are tied along the 
lower wire as before. If the same spurs are used for a few 
years they become so long that the canes arising from them 
reach above the wire and cannot be well managed in the * willow- 
ing.' It is desirable to provide new spurs annually, selecting 

those canes for 
the purpose that 
arise from the head 
of the vine or near 
it. It is possible 
by careful pruning 
to so cut away the 
old wood that 
practically all that 
remains after each 
pruning is the stem. Thus the vine is renewed almost to 
the ground. When the stem approaches the end of its use- 
fulness, a shoot is allowed to grow from the ground, and the 
old one is cut away. Figure 17 shows a vine pruned by the 
Keuka method. 

"This method of training is especially well adapted to slow 




Fig. 17. Keuka method of training. 



TRAlMXa GRAl^ES 1\ EASTERX AMERICA 131 

growinj:^ varieties, or tliose situated on poor soils, where Ijut 
little wood <,n-owtli is made. It is ideally adapted for the 
growing of Catawba on the hillsides of Keuka Lake. It is 
well adapted to late-maturing \arietics planted out of their 
zone. Concord, growing under average conditions, is too 
vigorous to be trained by this method. It makes a tremendous 
growth of wood out of all proportion to the quantity of fruit, 
which is inclined to be very inferior. The chief objection to 
this method is the amount of summer tying involved which 
comes at a time when attention to tillage should be given. 
It might prove profitable in the growing of dessert varieties 
that have been discarded because of lack of vigor. On thin 
hillside soils, Catawba requires training modelled after this 
method but on the heavier upland ones, with shorter pruning, 
it can be grown on the Chautauqua Arm plan. Delaware, 
lona, Dutchess, Campbell, Eumelan, Jessica, Vergennes and 
Regal are, as a rule, grown to better advantage when trained 
by the High Renewal method." 

Fan-training. 

The only other method now in use in w^hich the shoots may 
be trained upright is that in which the canes are disposed of 
in fan-shape. This method was much used a generation ago 
but is rapidly becoming obsolete. In fan-training the renewals 
are made yearly from spurs near the ground, and the fruiting 
canes are carried up obliquely and so form a fan. The great 
advantage in fan-training is that a trunk is almost dispensed 
with, which greatly facilitates laying down the vine in winter 
where winter-protection is needed. There are several objec- 
tions to this method in commercial plantations. The chief 
one is that the spurs become long, crooked and almost un- 
manageable so that renewals from the root must be made 
frequently. Another is that the fruit is borne close to the ground 
and becomes soiled with mud in dashing rains. The vines, 



132 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

also, are inconvenient in shape for tying. There are two or 
three modifications of fan-training which may be described 
as mongrel methods between this and the High Renewal and 
Horizontal Arm methods, none of which, however, is now in 
general favor. 

II. Shoots drooping 

Quite by accident, William KnifRn, a stone mason living 
at Clintondale, New York, in the Hudson River grape region, 
discovered that grapes of large size and handsome appearance 
could be grown on vines in which the canes were trained hori- 
zontally with the shoots drooping. He put his discovery in 
practice and from it have come the several methods of training 
grapes which bear his name. Kniffin's discovery was made 
about 1850 and the merits of his methods spread so rapidly 
over eastern America that by the end of the century the various 
Kniffin methods were more generally used than any others. 
Grape-growers now agree that strong-growing vines like Con- 
cord, Niagara and Clinton are best trained to one or another 
of the Kniffin methods. There are several modifications of 
Kniffin's method, three of which are now in common use, the 
most popular being the Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin. 

The trellis for the three methods carries two wires, the lower 
placed at the height of three to three and a half feet and the 
upper from two to two and a half feet above it. To permit 
this height of wires, the posts must be from eight to eight and 
a half feet in length, and must be firmly set with the end posts 
well braced. 

Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin. 

As practiced at the New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station, the vines are trained as follows : 

One trunk is carried to the top wire the third year after 
planting, or if the growth is not long enough at this time, it 



TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 133 



is carried to the lower wire and there tied. In this case, the 
following year a cane is extended to the top wire. This trunk 
is permanent. If the stem reaches the upper wire the third 
year, growers break out many of the developing shoots and 
allow only the strongest to grow, choosing those that arise 
close to the wires. The stem should be tied tightly to the 
top wire and somewhat loosely to the lower. If girdling re- 
sults at the top, it is not objectionable as the head of the vine 
should be below rather than above the wire. When the shoots 
are sufficiently hardened, 
those growing close- to 
the wires should be 
loosely tied to prevent 
injury during cultiva- 
tion. At the beginning 
of the fourth year, as 
shown in Fig. 18, the 
vine should consist of a 
stem extending from the 
ground to a point below 
the top wire. From this, 
all but two canes and 
two spurs of two buds 
each ha^■e been cut away below each wire level. As growth 
is most vigorous at the top of the stem, four to six more 
buds are left on the upper than on the lower canes. A vine 
of which the stem reaches the upper wire the third year should 
support the next season canes, aggregating twenty-two buds 
with eight additional buds on the spurs. If the growth is 
weak, only half this number should be left. 

The tying at this time consists of fastening the stem loosely; 
with ordinary grape twine, to the lower wire, and with the 
same material the canes are tied along the two wires to right 
and left of the stem. The canes should be tied tightly toward 




Fig. 18. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin 
training. 



134 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



the trunk so that they cannot slip out of the twine. Ordi- 
narily tying at this time is sufficient for the year, but if con- 
ditions for growth are unfavorable, the twine may rot before 
the tendrils take hold of the wires, and a partial second tying 
may be necessary. 

After the fourth season, the pruner has greater choice of fruit- 
ing-wood for the following year. It may be chosen from the 
basal canes of the preceding year's wood or the canes that 
develop from the spurs may be used. The choice should 
depend on the accessibility and maturity of the wood. At 
each pruning, the possibilities for obtaining fruiting wood for 
the following year must receive consideration. It is possible 
to use the same spurs for two or three years, but after this they 
should be cut away and new ones retained. After the first 
spurring, spurs should be selected from wood older than two 
years. The shoots from such wood bear but little fruit and 
hence make good fruiting canes for the next year. 

Umbrella Kniffln. 

Since most of the fruit on vines trained by the Four-cane 
Kniffin method is borne on the two upper canes, some growers 

in the Hudson River 
Valley dispense with 
the lower canes and 
cut the upper ones 
long enough to bear 
the crop. In this 
method the trunk is 
brought to the top 
wire and the head 
formed as in the Four- 
cane Kniffin. When 




Umbrella method of training. 



the vines are pruned at the close of the third year, two long 
canes are left at the head of the vine with two renewal spurs. 



THAIMXa GHAFES 1 X EASTERX AMERICA 



135 



These long canes are drooped o\er the upper wire obhquely 
down to the lower wire to which they are tied just above the 
last hud, forming an nnhrella-shaped top as sliown in Fig. 19. 
The renewals are made as in the Four-cane Kniffin. This 
method reduces the amount of leaf surface to the minimum, 
so that care must be taken to insure healthy leaf growth. 
The amount of fruiting-wood put up is also reduced to the 
nn'nimum, so that the yield is low ludess good cultiva- 
tion is provided, in which case, with some varieties and 
on some soils, the yield is up to the average and the 
crop is first-class as regards size of bunch and berry, compact- 
ness of bunch and maturity. 

The Tivo-trunh Knifin. 

The Two-trunk Kniffin, illustrated in Fig. 20, is another 
modification with the aim of securing greater fruitfulness. 
This method also provides an equal number of buds on both 

wires. Two trunks are 

brought from the root, 
one to the upper, the 
other to the lower wire. 
The fruiting canes are 
taken off and are dis- 
posed of as in the 
Four-cane Kniffin . The 
trunks are usually' tied 
together to hold them 
in place. This method 
is in restricted use in the Hudson River Valley where it is 
known under the name given here and as "Double Kniffin" 
and "Improved Kniffin." In experiments in training grapes 
at Fredonia, New York, under the direction of the New York 
Experiment Station, this method proves to be one of the 
poorest in growing Concords. The grapes fall short in size of 




Fig. 20. Two-trunk Kniffin training. 



136 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

bunch and berry and do not mature as well as under the other 
drooping methods of training. 

The Y -trunk Kniffin. 

Still another modification of the Kniffin method is one in 
which a crotch or Y is made in the trunk midway between the 
ground and the lower wire. The theory on which this method 
is founded is that sap for the lower canes is better supplied 
than in a straight or continuous trunk and that the lower canes 
thus become as productive as those on the upper wire. The 
theory is probably wrong but is accepted by many notwithstand- 
ing. The methods of pruning, renewing fruiting-wood and tying 
are the same as in the Single-stem Kniffin, except, of course, 
that each stem supports two canes and two spurs. This method 
was in somewhat common use some years ago in parts of 
western New York but is now disappearing. 

The Mimson method. 

An ingenious modification of the Kniffin principle was 
devised by Elbert Wakeman, Oyster Ba}', Long Island, and 
afterwards improved and brought into prominence by the late 
T. V. Munson of Denison, Texas ; it is now much used in 
southern vineyards. The method is described as follows by 
Munson : ^ 

"The posts should be of some durable strong wood, such as 
Bois d'Arc (Osage), Cedar, heartwood of Catalpa, Black 
Locust or White Oak. The end posts of every row should 
be large and strong and be set three and one-half or four feet 
in the ground and well tamped. The intermediate posts, 
which may be much lighter than the end posts, should be six 
and one-half or seven feet long and set two to two and one- 
half feet in the ground, with twenty-four feet spaces between 

^ Munson, T. V. Foundations of American Grape Culture: 224-227. 
1909. 



TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 137 

posts, whifh will take three vines, eij^ht feet apart, or two 
vines twelve feet apart. After the j)osts are set, a three- 
eighths-ineh hole should be bored throuj^h each post, four 
feet from tlie surface of the ground, in the direction in which 
the row runs, leaving six inches or more of post above the hole. 
These holes are for the admittance of the middle, lower wire 
of the trellis. 

" For each end post prepare for cross-arm, a piece of two by 
four hard pine or oak, two feet long, and at one inch from either 
end, and one inch from the upi)er side, bore a three-eighths 
of an inch bit-hole, or saw into upper side half an inch, which 
will take less time and do as well, to pass the lateral wires 
through, and in the middle of the lower side, saw a notch one- 
half inch deep. For each intermediate post, prepare a board 
of similar wood, two feet long, one inch thick by four broad, 
and likewise bore or notch. 

"Through the holes in the posts run a No. 11 galvanized 
wire, fasten at one end, tighten at the other end by a wire 
stretcher and fasten. This will be the middle and lower wire 
of the trellis, and all that will be needed the first year, when 
the young vines are trained up a string, tied from the vine 
(when set) to the wire, and along it. The arms, and the two 
lateral wires which they bear, need not be put on the trellis 
until after the vines are pruned and tied the next winter. To 
put on the cross-arms, use no bolts or nails, only No. 11 gal- 
vanized wire. 

"Each end cross-arm is placed inside the post, and against 
it on top of the wire, already through the posts, notch-side 
downward, straddling the wire, to keep it from sliding. Then 
take a piece of same size wire, about seven feet long, pass one 
end through the bit-hole or saw-notch, in one end of arm and 
fasten it by looping and twisting about six inches of the end 
back upon itself, then while one person holds the cross-arm 
in place, the operator carries the wire down around the post 



138 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

once near the ground, staples it on each side and brings the 
other end up to the opposite end of arm, puts it through the 
bit-hole, or saw-notch, draws it tightly, keeping the arm level, 
and fastens the end of the wire as was done the other. Wire 
nippers and pliers will be needed for this work. Then take 
another piece of wire about two feet long, and put it twice 
around the cross-arm and the post where they come together, 
above the middle wire, and firmly tie them together, crossing 
the wire as it goes around. This will hold the arm in place 
and not weaken or split the arm as do nails and bolts, and will 
be longer-lasting, quicker and cheaper, and more elastic, so 
that when struck by the hames or collar in cultivation, it 
gives a little, receiving no damage. 

"Likewise place the cross-arms on the intermediate posts, 
leaving the ends of the wire projecting about six inches after 
fastening, for a purpose soon to be mentioned. Then draw 
the two lateral wires through the bit-holes in the ends of the 
arms, or drop into the saw-notches, if such are made, through- 
out the row, tighten with the wire stretcher and fasten. Then 
return along each lateral wire, wrapping ends of wire at the 
ends of the arms very closely and tightly around the through- 
going lateral wires, as telegraph and telephone wires are 
wrapped in splicing. This is quickly done with the proper 
pliers, and prevents the arms from slipping out of proper 
position. Now the trellis is complete, and will need little or 
no repairs, and looks very neat, especially if painted. 

"Pruning and training on the Munson trellis is very simple 
and easy with a little instruction for a few minutes with a 
vine or two pruned for example. The vine the first season is 
allowed to grow up on to the middle wire by a string around 
which it is coiled by hand, by going over the vineyard once or 
twice until the selected shoot of each vine is upon the wire, 
after which it is allowed to ramble at freedom over the wires. 
By getting on to the trellis the first year, one strong , shoot. 




Plate XI. — Concord {X-. 



TRAILING GRAPES I\ EASTERX AMERICA 139 

and allowing no other to grow, a partial crop can be had the 
second year, withont damage, on all bnt weak growers, like 
Delaware, that should not be allowed to bear until the third 
year. At the first regular pruning (all prunings should be 
done in November or December, after leaf fall, and never so 
late as to cause the vines to bleed), the vine should be cut back 
to two or three buds that have reached the middle wire, if 
weak growers, if strong, with heavy growth, six or eight buds 
each, to two arms, one going each way along the lower wire 
from where the ascending vine first touches the wire. After 
the vines are thus pruned, the outer end of each arm is firmly 
tied to the lower wire, along which it is gently coiled. These 
two ties hold the vine firmly in place. The buds on the arms 
push and ascend, passing over the lateral wires, clinging thereto 
with their tendrils, and hang o\'er like a beautiful green drapery 
shading the fruit and body of the vine according to its natural 
habit. 

"On the canopy trellis, all the summer pruning required is, 
to go through the vineyard at or a few days before blooming 
time, and with a light sharp butcher knife, clip off the tips of 
all advanced shoots to be left for bearing, leaving two or three 
leaN'Cs bey(md the outer flower cluster. From the shoots near 
the crotch, selected for bearing arms the next year, pick the 
flower clusters, and strip off or rub off all shoots and buds that 
start on trunk of vine below crotch. This latter is very im- 
portant, as such shoots, if left, eat up the nourishment of the 
land with no return but added work at pruning time. 

" It will be found that the shoots at the ends of the arms usu- 
all> start first and strongest, and if not clipped back, will 
not allow the buds back toward the crotch to start well, but 
if clipped, all other desirable buds then push. 

" In about six to ten days after the first clipping, a second 
one is usuallv necessary, especially if the weather is moist and 
warm, and the land rich. The first clipped shoots, as well as 



140 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

those not clipped the first time, will need clipping back this 
time, the end buds on the first clipped having pushed vigorously. 

"At a second year's pruning and others following, the old 
arms with all the bearing shoots on them are cut off down to 
the new arms and the new arms cut back to lengths they can 
fill with fruit and well mature. In this, critical judgment and 
knoAvledge of capabilities of different varieties are more re- 
quired in the pruner than in any other of the training work. 
Some varieties, such as the Delaware, cannot carry more than 
three to four arms, two feet long, while Herbemont can more 
easily carry four arms each eight feet long, hence such as 
Delaware should be planted eight feet or less apart, while 
Herbemont and most of the Post-Oak grape hybrids, should 
be tweh'e to sixteen feet apart. In other words, each variety 
should be set that distance apart that it will fill the trellis 
with fruit from end to end, and mature it well, so as to better 
economize space. 

" By the third year, the vine should come to full bearing, and 
be pruned with four bearing arms, two to go each way along 
the lower wire of trellis, gently coiling around the wire, one arm 
in one direction, the other in opposite direction, and should 
be in about equal lengths, so that one firm tie with jute yarn, 
near the ends, will be all the tying the vines will need — that 
is, two ties to each vine — the least required by any trellis 
system, and the pruning is also simplest and the results every 
way the best. 

"Some of the advantages of this trellis are its cheapness, 
its simplicity, bringing the work up breast-high so that prun- 
ing, tying, harvesting, spraying, can be done in an erect posi- 
tion, saving back strain ; perfect distribution of light, heat 
and air to foliage and fruit ; shielding from sunscald and birds ; 
giving free ventilation and easy passage of wind through the 
vineyard without blowing down the trellis or tender shoots 
from the vines, and allowing ready passage from row to row, 



TRAIXlXa GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 141 

without going arouiul, tluis getting larger and better er<)j)s 
at less expense and increasing length of life of vineyard and the 
pleasure of taking care of it." 

This method does not seem to be adapted to the needs of 
grapes in northern \ineyards, and in the South such weak- 
growing sorts as Dchiware do not thri\'c when so trained. 
Several "modified Munson methods" are in use in the southern 
states, but those most commonly employed do not depart 
greatly from the method here described. 

///. Shoof.s horizuiital 
Hudson horizontal. 

There is now in use but one method of training shoots hori- 
zontally. In this method the trellis is made by setting posts 
eight or ten feet apart and connecting them bv' two slats, 
one at the top of the posts, the other about eighteen inches 
from the ground. Strands of wire are stretched perpen- 
dicularly between the slats at ten- or twelve-inch intervals. 
One cane is trained from a trunk from one to two feet high on 
the trellis ; it rises perpendicularly from the ground and is 
tied to the top slat. The shoots push out right and left and 
are tied horizontally to each wire as they reach it. The cane 
is usually allowed to bear about six shoots on each side. The 
grapes set at the base of the shoots so that the bunches hang 
one over the other, making a pretty sight. This method is 
too expensive for a commercial vineyard but is often used in 
gardens and for ornamental plantings. Only weak-growing 
sorts, as Delaware, Zona or Diana are adapted for this method. 
Delaware does remarkably well under horizontal training. 
The use of slats and wires in horizontal training are often 
reversed. The alternative from the method just described 
is to set posts sixteen or eighteen feet apart upon which are 
strung two wires as for the ordinary trellis. Perpendicular 



142 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

slats are then fastened to these wires to which the shoots are 
tied. Two slats, fifteen inches apart, are provided on each 
side of a fruiting cane, which, with the slat for the support of 
the cane, give five to a vine. Or the x'me may be supported 
by a stake driven in the ground. 

In both of these methods, a shoot must be taken out from 
the head of the vine each season for the next season's fruiting- 
wood. This shoot is tied to the central wire or slat and is 
now allowed to fruit. Thus the vine starts each spring with 
a single cane. Grapes are grown under these horizontal 
methods chiefly, if not only, in the Hudson River Valley 
and even here they are going out of use. 

Training on Arbors, Pergolas and as Ornamentals 

The grape is much used to cover arbors, pergolas, lattices 
and to screen the sides of buildings, few climbing plants being 
more ornamental. Leaf, fruit and vine have been favorite 
subjects for reproduction by ornamental ists of all ages. As 
yet, however, it is seldom seen in cultivated landscapes except 
to secure shade and seclusion. 

Grown for aesthetic purposes, the grape is seldom fruitful, 
for the vines can rarely be cultivated or deprived of their 
luxuriant growth as in the vineyard. Nevertheless, grapes 
grown as ornamentals can be trained so as to serve the double 
purpose of ornamental and fruit-bearing plant. Grown on 
the sides of a building, the grape often can be made to bear 
large crops of choicely fine fruit. The ancients had learned 
this, for the Psalmist says : "Thy wife shall be like the fruitful 
vine by the sides of thine house." 

In all ornamental plantings on arbors or pergolas, if fruit is 
to be considered, the permanent trunk is carried to the top of 
the structure. Along this trunk, at intervals of eighteen inches, 
spurs are left from which to renew the wood from year to year. 



TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 143 

The vines should stand six or eight feet apart, depending on 
the variety, and one cane is left, three or four feet long, on 
each spur when the pruning is done. Shoots springing from 
these cover intermediate spaces soon after growth begins. 
Provision, of course, must be made for a new cane each season, 
and this is done by saving a shoot springing from spur or trunk 
at pruning time. 

The same method of training, with modifications to suit the 
case, may be employed on sides of buildings, walls, fences and 
lattices. If the object to be covered is low, however, and 
especially if fruit as well as a covering is wanted, perhaps a 
better plan is annually to renew from a low trunk or even back 
to the root. In this low renewal, a new cane, or two or three 
if desired, should be brought out each season, thus securing 
greater vigor for the vine, but greatly delaying, especially 
in the case of high walls, the production of a screen of foliage. 

Pruning and Training Muscadine Grapes 

The Muscadine grapes of the South are so distinct in charac- 
ters of growth and fruit-bearing that their requirements as 
to pruning and training are quite different from the methods 
so far given. Until recent years when these grapes have be- 
come of commercial importance, it was thought by southern 
vineyardists that the Muscadines needed little or no pruning 
and some held that pruning injured the vines. Now it is 
found that Muscadines respond quite as readily as other types 
of grapes to pruning and training. Husmann and Dearing ^ 
give following directions for pruning Muscadines : 

"Two systems of training are employed with Muscadine 
grapes : (1) The horizontal or overhead system, by which the 
growth is spread as an overhead canopy about 7 feet above the 

• Husmann. Georg:e C, and Dearine:. Charles. Muscadine Grapes. 
Bui. 709, U. S. Dept. Agr.: 16-19. 1916. 



144 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



ground and supported by posts ; and (2) the upright or vertical 
system, in which the growth is spread over a trelHs. 

"In the overhead system a single trunk is caused to grow 
erect from the ground alongside a permanent post. When 
the vine has reached the top of the post it is pinched in or cut 
back, so as to make it throw out shoots to grow and spread out 
from the head of the vine as the spokes of a wheel radiate from 




Fig. 21. Rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead method. 



the hub. (The overhead training of Muscadines is shown in 
Fig. 21 ; upright training, in Fig. 22.) 

" In the upright systems the fruiting arms are either radiated 
from a low vine head, like the ribs of a fan, or they are taken 
off as horizontal arms from a central vertical trunk. 

"Where the vineyard is not given close personal attention 
and pruning and other vineyard practices are neglected the 
best results will be obtained with the overhead trellis. More- 
over, such a trellis permits cross-plowing and cultivation and 



TRAIMXG GRAPES IX EASTERX AMERICA 145 



is better adapted for jj^razing liogs, sheep, or eattle on cover 
crops grown in the vineyard. On the other luind, the careful 
vineyardist can expect the best and earHest residts from vines 
on the upright or vertical supports. The upright trellis facili- 
tates pruning, harvesting, spraying, and intercropping through- 
out the life of the vineyard ; it is also easier to repair and 




Fig. 22. A Rotundifolia vine trained Ijv the G-arm renewal method. 

can be erected from $10 to $20 an acre cheaper than the oxer- 
head trellis. The use of both the upright system and the over- 
head trellis has netted the growers profitable returns. Each 
has its advantages and disadvantages. The prospective 
grower, knowing his own conditions, must determine which 
training system is best suited to his conditions. 

"During the first year after planting, a strong stake reach- 
ing 4 feet above the ground at each vine is sufficient support. 



146 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

A trellis should be erected the second season, though the upper 
wires of an upright trellis and the secondary wires of an over- 
head trellis may be added later, as the vines need them. In 
erecting an upright trellis the posts should be set midway 
between the vines, the distances apart varying with the dis- 
tances between the plants. The end posts of the rows should 
be firmly braced. Three wires are generally used, placed 
24, 42, and from 56 to 60 inches from the ground. 

" In erecting an overhead trellis, the usual method is to place 
a substantial, durable post reaching 7 feet above the ground 
at each of the permanent vines. Rows of extra heavy, well- 
braced posts, running parallel with and also at the ends of 
the rows of vines, are set at the boundaries of the ^'ineyard. 
There are a number of different ways of arranging the wires. 
Usually No. 10 galvanized wires are securely fastened to the 
tops of the boundary posts on the four sides of a vineyard and 
then are run along and securely fastened on the tops of the 
inside post down each row in both directions as governor 
wires. As needed. No. 14 wires 2 feet apart are run parallel 
with the governor wires until in this manner the entire area 
has been covered. 

"A cheaper but less durable overhead trellis is made by 
running No. 9 governor wires in only one direction and the 
secondary wires only at right angles to the governor wires, 
the secondary wires being fastened to the governor wires 
wherever they cross. 

" Some growers construct arbors entirely of wood, using slats 
or poles instead of wires. 

"The pruning of Muscadine grapes during the first three 
years is mainly for the purpose of establishing the permanent 
parts and adjusting the other parts of the vine to the desired 
training system for future usefulness. After that the pruning 
is primarily a matter of renewing the bearing surface and 
keeping the vines healthy, vigorous, and productive. 



TRAIXIXG GRAPES IX EASTERX AMERICA 147 

"During the first season the trunk of the vine should he 
establishetl. From this the main fruiting branches are started 
the second season. These, under favorable circumstances, 
will bear a small crop of fruit the third season. After that the 
purpose of priming should be to renew growth, to increase or 
decrease the bearing surface, and to maintain the shape of the 
vine. 

"Severe pruning usually removes most of the fruit-bearing 
wood and throws the vine into vigorous wood growth. No 
pruning, on the other hand, causes a growth which is too much 
distributed, weak, and incapable of bearing good crops. There- 
fore, the grape grower should study the vines sufficiently to 
enable him to judge each year the proper severity of pruning 
for the best results. This will depend on the variety, the 
age of the vines, the fertility of the soil, etc. Muscadine 
grapes bear their fruit in small clusters. It is therefore neces- 
sary to maintain a large fruiting surface in order to secure a 
proper tonnage of fruit. This is accomplished by developing 
a series of fruiting arms, spurring along these, and lengthening 
them as the vines become stronger. Such fruiting arms can 
be maintained for a number of years, but after a time it is 
desirable to renew them. This is done by cutting out the arm 
and starting a new one from a cane that has been previously 
grown for such purposes. It is preferable to renew systemat- 
ically only one or, at most, two arms on a vine each year. 
This gradual renewal does not disturb the vigor of the vine, 
but keeps it productive, healthy, and strong. The pruning 
can be quickly and easily done if systematically practiced from 
the time the vines are started." 

Rejuvenating Old Vines 

When pruning and training are neglected, a vineyard soon 
becomes a sorry compan>" of halt and maimed \ iiies. These 



148 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

neglected vines can rarely be reshaped and restored to their 
pristine vigor. If the old vines seem capable of throwing out 
a strong new growth, it is almost always better to grow a new 
top by taking out canes from the roots and so rejuvenate. 
The energy and activity of Nature are seldom seen to better 
advantage than in these new tops, if the old tops are cut back 
severely and the vineyard given good care. The new canes 
grow with the gusto of the biblical bay tree, making it diffi- 
cult oftentimes to keep them within bounds. 

Usually this new top can be treated essentially as if it were 
a new vine. Not infrequently the cane will make sufficient 
growth and mature well enough so that it may be left as a 
permanent trunk at the end of the first season. If, however, 
the wood is short, weak and soft, it should be cut back in the 
autumn to two or three buds from one of which a permanent 
trunk can be trained the next season from which a good top 
can be formed in another season. The old top is discarded as 
soon as the new trunk is tied to the trellis. Old vineyards are 
often rejuvenated in this way to advantage and return profits 
to their owners for years ; but if the soil is poor and the vines 
weak, attempts to renew the tops seldom pay. 

Occasionally rejuvenating old vines by pruning is worth 
while. When such an attempt is made, it is best to cut back 
severely at the winter-pruning, leaving two, three or four 
canes, depending on the method of training, of six, eight or 
ten buds. The amount of wood left must depend on the vigor 
of the plant and the variety. The success of such rejuvenation 
depends much on selecting suitable places on the old vine from 
which to renew the bearing wood. It requires good judgment, 
considerable skill and much experience to rejuvenate success- 
fully an old vineyard by remodeling the existing top, and if 
the vines are far gone with neglect it is seldom worth while. 

Sometimes old vines or even a whole vineyard can be re- 
juvenated most easily by grafting. This is particularly true 




Pl.\te XIl. — Duma (.Xf). 



TRAlNIXa GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 149 

when the vines are not of the kind wanted, and when the 
vineyard contains an occasional stray vine from the variety 
to whicii it is phuited. Directions for graftiiif^ arc jjiven on 
pages 45 to 50. The grafted vine is readily brought into shape, 
under any of the several methods of training, by treating it 
as a young vine. 



CHAPTER IX 
GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 

The methods of pruning and training native grapes, dis- 
cussed in the last two chapters, do not apply to the Vinifera 
grapes grown in the favored valleys of the Rocky Mountains 
and on the Pacific slope. As we have already seen, the 
Vinifera or Old World grape differs markedly in habits of 
growth from the American species so that it would not 
be expected that pruning which applies to the one would 
apply to the other types. The fundamentals, to be sure, 
are much the same and the different species of grapes are 
about equally subservient to the shears of the pruner, but 
while pruning to regidate fruit-bearing finds many similari- 
ties in Old and New World grapes, the training of the vines 
is radically different. 

European practices in pruning and training Vinifera grapes 
are so many and so diverse that the first growers of this 
fruit in America were at a loss to know how to prune their 
vines. But, out of a half century of experience, American 
growers of Old World grapes have adapted from European 
practices and have devised to meet new conditions, methods 
which serve very well in the new home for this old grape. 
Since the culture of the Old World grape is centered in 
California, almost confined to that state, California practice 
may be taken as a pattern in pruning and training the vines 
of this species. 

150 



GRAPE-PRUMNG ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 151 

Vine Pruning in California ^ 

Tho systems of pruiiiiif^ in use in CaliForni;) may be divided 
into two ehisses according to the arrangement of the arms on 
the trunk of the vine. In the commonest systems, there is a 
definite liead to the trunk, from which all the arms arise sym- 
metrically at nearly the same lexel. The vines of these systems 
ma\' be called "headed viies." In the other systems, the 
trunk is elongated four to eight feet and the arms are distributed 
regularly along the whole or the greater portion of its length. 
The vines of these systems, owing to the rope-like form of the 
trunks, are called "cordons." 

The headed vines are divided according to the length of the 
vertical trunk into high, 2-8 feet, medium, 1-1^ feet, and 
low, 0-6 inches. The cordons may be vertical or horizontal, 
according to the direction of the trunk, which is from four to 
eight feet long. The horizontal cordons may be single (uni- 
lateral) or composed of two branches extending in opposite 
directions (bilateral). Double and even multiple vertical 
cordons occur, but they are very inadvisable and have no 
advantages. 

The arrangement of the arms of a headed vine may be sym- 
metrical in all directions at an angle of about 45 degrees. Such 
a vine is said to be "vase-formed," though the hollow center 
which this term implies is not essential. This is the form used 
in the great majority of our vineyards whether of wine, raisin, 
or shipping grapes. It is suitable for the "square" system of 
planting and cross cultivation. Where vines are planted in the 
avenue system, particularly when trellised and where cross 
cultivation is impossible, the arms are given a "fan-shaped" 

' The remainder qf this chapter is republished by permission from 
Bid. 246, Calif. Exp. Sta., Vine Pruning in California, published in 
1910 by F. T. Bioletti. Not all of the l)ulletin is reproduced, but the 
parts republished are transcribed verbatim. All of the illustrations in 
this chapter have been redrawn from Professor Bioletti's bulletin. 



152 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

arrangement in a vertical plane. This arrangement is con- 
sidered to be essential for the economical and easy working of 
trellised vines. 

On the vertical or upright cordon, the arms are arranged at 
as regular intervals as possible on all sides of the trunk from the 
top to within twelve or fifteen inches of the bottom. On the 
horizontal cordon the arms are arranged similarly, but as nearly 
as possible on the upper side of the trunk only. 

Each of these systems may again be divided into two sub- 
systems, according to the management of the annual growth 
or canes. In one, spurs of one, two, or three eyes are left for 
fruit production. This system is called short or spur pruning. 
In the other, long canes are left for fruit production. This is 
called long or cane pruning. In rare cases an intermediate 
form is adopted in which long spurs or short canes of five or 
six eyes are left. In cane pruning, each fruit cane is accom- 
panied by one or two short renewal spurs. These must also 
accompany half-long pruning. Systems of pruning, when only 
long canes are left without renewal-spurs, are not in use in 
California. In all systems, replacing-spurs are left wherever 
and whenever needed. 

Other modifications are introduced by the manner of dis- 
posal of the fruit canes. These may be tied up vertically to a 
stake driven at the foot of each vine or bowed in a circle and 
tied to this same stake, or they may be tied laterally to wires 
stretching along the rows in a horizontal, ascending or descend- 
ing direction. 

The different systems differ therefore in : (1) the shape, 
length, and direction of the trunk ; (2) the arrangement of the 
arms ; (3) the use of fruit spurs or fruit canes with renewal 
spurs ; (4) the disposal of the fruit canes. 

The principal possibilities of the pruning are shown in the 
following table : 



GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 



153 



A. Head Pruning : Vase-form 



1. High trunk : 

2. Medium trunk : 

3. Low trunk : 



with 



(fl) Fruit spurs or 

(/>) Half-long canes and re- 
newal spurs or 

(r) Fruit canes and renewal 
spurs ; canes vertical 
or bowed. 



B. Head Pruning: Fan-shaped; Trellised 

1. High trunk: Fruit canes and renewal spurs; canes de- 
scending. 

2. Medium trunk : Fruit canes and renewal spurs ; canes 
horizontal or ascending. 



C. Cordon Pruning 

1. Vertical: Spur; half-long; cane. 

2. Horizontal-unilateral: Spur; half-long; cane. 

3. Horizontal-bilateral : Spur ; half-long ; cane. 

All possible combinations indicated by this table represent 
24 variations. Some of these combinations, however, are not 
used and some are rare. The most common are shown in 
Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26 and 27. 

Figure 23 B represents a headed, vase-formed vine, with a 
medium trunk and short fruit spurs. This is the most common 
system used in all parts of California and is suited for all small 
growing vines which bear on the lower buds, for most wine 
grapes and for Muscats. The unit of pruning in this case is a 
fruit spur of 1, 2. or 3 iiiternodes, according to the \igor of the 
variety and of the individual cane. 

Figure 23 A differs from 23 B only in the higher trunk and 
longer arms. It is commonly used for Tokay and other large 



154 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



growing varieties, especially when growing in rich soil and when 
planted far apart. 

Figure 23 C has the same form of body as A and B, except 
that the arms are somewhat less numerous. The unit of prun- 
ing is a short fruit cane of four to five internodes, accompanied 
by a renewal spur of one internode. It is suited for vigorous 
table grapes, which do not bear well on short spurs. It is used 
especially for the Cornichon and IMalaga in rich soil. This is 
a diflScult system to keep in good shape owing to the tendency 




Fig. 23. Forms of head pruning: .4, spur pruning with high trunk; B, 
spur pruning with medium trunk ; C, half-long with medium trunk. 

for all the vigor to go to the growth on the ends of the fruit 
canes. It is difficult to obtain vigorous canes on the renewal 
spurs. Occasional short pruning is usually necessary to keep 
the vines in proper shape. 

Figure 24 A is similar to 23 C in form, but the number of arms 
is still further reduced to 2, 3, or at most 4. The unit of prun- 
ing is a fruit cane of 2i to 3i feet with its renewal spur. Ow- 
ing to the length of the fruit canes they require support and 
are tied to a high stake. 

This method is used in a large number of vineyards with 
Sultanina, Sultana and certain wine grapes, especially Semillon 
and Cabernet. It is not to be recommended in any case, as it 
has several verv serious defects. 



GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 155 



The difficulty of ohtaininp; new wood from the renewal spurs 
is even greater than in the system shown in Fig. 23 C. The 
length and vertical position of the fruit canes cause the main 
growth and vigor of the vine to be expended on the highest 
shoots. The renewal spurs are thus so shaded that, even though 
their buds start, the 
shoots make but a weak 
growth. The result is 
that at the following 
pruning all the good 
new wood is at the top 
of the fruit canes of the 
previous year, where it 
cannot be utilized. The 
pruner has to choose 
then between reverting 
to spur pruning and 
getting no crop or using 
the weak growth from 
the renewal spurs for 
fruit canes, in which 
case he may get blos- 
soms but little or no 
fruit of any value. 

Other defects of this 
method are that the 
fruiting shoots are ex- 
cessively vigorous and 
therefore often tend to drop their blossoms without setting and 
the fruit when produced is massed together so that it ripens 
unevenly and is difficult to gather. It also requires a tall 
and expensive .stake. 

Figure 24 B represents an improvement on the last system. 
It differs onlv in the method of treating the fruit canes. These 




A B 

P'iG. 24. Forms of head pruning: A, ver- 
tical fruit canes and renewal spurs ; B, bowed 
fruit canes and renewal spurs. 



156 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



are bent over in the form of a circle and tied by their middle 
part to a stake which may be smaller and lower than that needed 
for the vertical canes. 

This bowung of the canes has several useful efl'ects. The 
change of direction moderates the tendency of the vigor of the 
vine to expend itself only on the terminal shoots. More shoots 
therefore are formed on the fruit canes and as their vigor is 
somewhat decreased they tend to be more fruitful. The slight 




Fig. 25. Head pruning : fan-shaped head ; fruit canes tied to horizontal 

trellis. 



mechanical injury caused by the bending operates in the same 
direction. 

The excess of vigor thus being diverted from the fruit canes 
causes the renewal spurs to form vigorous shoots, which soon 
grow above the fruit shoots and obtain the light and aii* they 
need for their proper development. This method is used suc- 
cessfully for certain wine grapes such as Riesling, Cabernet, 
and Semillon. It is unsuited to large vigorous varieties or for 
vines on rich soil planted wide apart. In these cases two fruit 
canes are usually insufficient and, if more are used, the grapes 
and leaves are so massed together that they are subject to mil- 



GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 



157 



(lew and do not ripen evenly or well. The bowini; and tyinji: 
of the canes reqnires considerable skill and care on the part <»f' 
th<' workmen. 

The body, arms, and annual prunin<jj of the system shown in 
Fig. 25 are similar to those of Fi^. 2i, with the exception that 
the arms are given a fan-shaped arrangement in one plane. It 
differs in the disposal of the fruit canes, 
which are supported by a trellis stretching 
along the row from vine to vine. 

This method is largely used for the Sul- 
tanina (Thompson's Seedless), and is the best 
system for vigorous vines which require long 
pruning, wherever it is possible to dispense 
with cross cultivation. It is also suitable 
for any long-pruned varieties when growing 
in very fertile soil. 

Figure 26 is a photograph of a four-year- 
old Emperor vine, illustrating the vertical 
cordon system. It consists of an upright 
trunk 4^ feet high with short arms and fruit 
spurs scattered evenly and symmetricallj^ 
from the top to within fifteen inches of the 
bottom. This system is used in many Em 
peror vineyards in the San Joaquin Valley. 

Its advantages are that it allows the large 
development of the vine and the large number of spurs which 
the vigor of the Emperor demands, without, on the one hand, 
crowding the fruit by the proximity of the spurs or, on the 
other hand, spreading the vine so much that cultivation is 
interfered with. It also permits cross cultivation. 

One of its defects is that the fruit is subjected to various 
degrees of temperature and shading in different parts of the 
vine and the ripening and coloring are often uneven. A more 
vital defect is that it cannot be maintained permanently. The 




Fig. 20. Single 
vertical cordon with 
fruit spurs. 



158 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

arms and spurs at the top of the trunk tend to absorb the 
energies of the vine and the lower arms and spurs become 
weaker each year until finally no growth at all is obtained be- 
low. After several years, most of the vines therefore lose their 
character of cordons and become simply headed-vines with 
abnormally long trunks. 

The cordon can be reestablished in this case by allowing a 
vigorous sucker to develop one year from which to form a new 
trunk the next. The following year the old trunk is removed 
entirely. An objection to this method is that it makes very 
large wounds in the most vital part of the vine — the base of 
the trunk. 

Figure 27 is a photograph of a four-year-old Colombar vine, 
illustrating the unilateral, horizontal cordon system. It con- 




Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit spurs. 



sists of a trunk about seven feet long, supported horizontally 
by a wire two feet from the ground. Arms and spurs are ar- 
ranged along the whole horizontal part of the trunk. 

This system accomplishes the same objects as the vertical 
cordon. It allows a large development of the vine and nu- 
merous fruit spurs without crowding. It is superior to the ver- 
tical cordon in the distribution of the fruit, which is all exposed 
to approximately the same conditions owing to the uniform 
distance from the ground of the fruit spurs. All parts of the 
trunk producing an annual growth of wood and fruit are equally 
exposed to light and the tendency of the growth to occur prin- 



GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 159 

cipall>- at the part of the trunk farthest removed from the 
root is counteracted by the horizontal position. There is not 
the same difficulty therefore in maintaining this form of vine 
permanently that there is with the vertical cordon. 

This system should not be used for small weak vines, whether 
the weakness is a characteristic of the variety or due to the 
nature of the soil. It is suited only to very vigorous varieties 
such as Emperor, Almeria, and the Persian grapes when grow- 
ing far apart in rich, moist soil. 

Periods of development. 

The first year in the life of a vine is devoted to developing 
a vigorous root system ; the next two or three years to building 
up a shapely trunk and head, and a like period to forming the 
full complement of arms. At the end of from five to nine 
years the framework of the vine is complete and should undergo 
no particular change of shape except a gradual thickening of 
trunk and arms. 

There are, therefore, several periods in the life of the vine 
with Aarying objects, and the methods of pruning must vary 
accordingly. These pcriodsdo not correspond exactly to periods 
of time, so it may be misleading to speak of pruning a two-year- 
old or a three-year-old vine. One vine under certain conditions 
will reach the same stage of development in two years that 
another will reach only in three or four years under other con- 
ditions. The range of time of these periods is about as follows : 

PMrst period — Formation of a strong root system . 1 to 2 years 
Second period — Formation of stem or trunk . . 1 year 

Third period — P"'ormation of head 2 to 3 years 

Fourth period — Complete development of the arms 2 to 3 years 

Total time of formation of framework . . . . 6 to 9 years 

Under exceptionally favorable conditions the first and second 
periods may be included in the first year and a completely 
formed vine may be obtained in five years. 



160 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Before 'planting. 

For planting, cuttings, one-year-old rooted vines, or bench 
grafts are used. In all cases, they need some attention from 
the pruner. 

The usual way to prune a good rooted vine of average size 
having a single cane at the top and several good roots at 
the bottom is to shorten the cane to one or two buds and 
the roots to two or four inches, according to their size. 
Shortening the cane makes the vine less liable to dry out 
before rooting and forces the growth from the lower buds which 
produce more vigorous shoots. The roots are shortened so 
that there will be no danger of the ends being turned upwards 
when planted. If they are to be planted in a large hole, they 
may be left as long as five or six inches ; if to be planted with 
a crowbar or dibble, they must be cut back to half an inch. 

If the rooted vine has several canes, all but one should be re- 
moved entirely, and this one shortened to one or two eyes. 
The one left should be that which is strongest, has the best 
buds, and is the best placed. Where a horizontal cane is left, 
it should be cut back to the base bud. Otherwise the main 
growth may occur at a higher bud and the vine will have a 
crook which will result in a badly formed trunk. 

If canes are growing from different joints, it is usually best 
to leave the lower cane if they are equally vigorous. This 
brings the buds from which growth will come nearer to the 
roots, and leaves less of the original cutting, which are ad- 
vantages. The upper joint between the canes is, moreover, 
often more or less decayed or imperfect. 

First growing season. 

The treatment during the first spring and summer will de- 
pend on what growth the vines are expected to make and on 
whether the vines are staked the first year. 



ORAPE-PRUXIXG OX THE PACIFIC SLOPE 161 

With c'Uttlii^fs ;intl with both rooted vines and <i;riifts wliere 
the growth will he moderate, staking the first year is unneees- 
sary, though it has some slight advantages. In these cases, no 
pruning of any kind is necessary until the winter following the 
planting, except in the ease of bench grafts. The pruning in 
the last case is confined to the removal of the suckers from the 
stock and roots from the cion. If the stocks have been well 
disbudded by the nurseryman, few suckers will develop. In 
moist soil, the cion roots may develop vigorously and must be 
removed before they grow too large, or they may prevent the 
proper development of the resistant roots. 

The removal of roots should usually be done some time in 
July. For this jjurpose the hill of soil is scraped away from the 
union and after the cion roots and suckers are removed it is 
replaced. In this second hilling up, the union should be just 
barely covered so that the soil round the union will be dry and 
unfavorable to a second growth of roots. Later in the season, 
about September, the soil should be removed entirely from 
around the union and any new roots that may have formed 
removed. The union is then left exposed to harden and mature, 
so that it will pass the winter without injury. 

First ir infer pruui)ig. 

At the end of the first growing season, an average good 
vine will have produced from three to fi\e canes, the longest of 
which will be from two to three feet long. 

Soon after the leaves have fallen in December or early in 
January the vines should be pruned. The method is precisely 
similar to that used for rooted vines before planting excejit 
that the main roots are not touched. All the canes are re- 
moved entirely except one. This one should be well matured, 
at least at the base, and should have well-formed eyes. It is 
shortened to two eyes. It is well also to cut ofi' all shallow 
roots within three or four inches of the surface. This is neces- 
u 



162 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

sary in the case of grafted vines if any have escaped the sum- 
mer root-cutting. 

Some of the vines may have made an exceptionally large 
growth. Such vines may sometimes possess a cane large enough 
from which to start the trunk in the way described later for 
the second winter pruning. 

Staking. 

If the vines have not been staked before, the stakes should 
be driven soon after pruning and before the starting of the buds. 

In order to preserve the alignment of the vineyard, the stakes 
should be driven on the same side of every vine at a uniform 
distance. The best distance is about two inches. If driven 
closer they may injure large roots or even the main underground 
stem if the vines have not been carefully planted vertically or 
slanting towards the side on which the stake is to be placed. 

The side on which the stake should be placed depends on the 
direction of the prevailing winds during the growing season. 
This side is the leeward. That is, the stake should be so placed 
that the wind will press the vine towards the stake instead of 
away from it. This will much facilitate the work of keeping the 
vine upright and attached to the stake. If the vine is on the 
other side the pressure of the wind will stretch the string tight 
and the swaying of the vine will gradually wear the string until 
it breaks, necessitating retying. By carefully observing this 
rule, very few vines will require retying even if weak material 
like binding twine is used. 

Second summer pruning. 

Before the starting of the buds, in the spring following the 
planting, most of the vines appear about the same as when 
they were planted. There is, however, a very notable differ- 
ence, in that they have well-developed root systems in the soil 
where thev were formed. The result is that thev make a much 



ORAPE-PRUXIXG 0.\ THE PACIFIC SLOPE 163 

more pi-Dinpt aiul early start and will produce a iniicli larger 
growth than they did the first season. For this reason they 
require very careful attention from the pruner during the spring 
and summer of the second season. Vines neglected at this 
time, in this respect, may make as large a growth, hut a large 
part of it will be wasted, the vines will be misformed and it will 
require from one to two years longer to develop a suitable frame- 
work and to bring them into bearing, even though they are 
properly handled during subsequent years. The more vigorous 
the vines, the more necessary it is to handle them properly dur- 
ing this period. 

The main object during this second growing season is to de- 
velop a single, strong, vigorous and well-ripened cane from 
which to form the permanent trunk of the vine. 

This is done by concentrating all the energies of the vine into 
the growth of a single shoot. As soon as the buds start, or 
when the most precocious has developed a shoot of a few inches 
in length, the vines should be disbudded. This consists in 
rubbing of!" with the hand all buds and shoots except the two 
largest and best placed. The lowest, upright shoots are usually 
the best. Leave only those which will make a straight vine. 
It is better to leave less developed l)uds than a shoot which, 
when it grows, will make an awkward crook with tiie under- 
ground stem. 

After this disbudding, the two shoots left will grow rapidly, 
as they receive all the energies of the root system. When the 
longest have grown from ten to fifteen inches, they should be 
tied to the stake. Unless this is done, they are liable to be 
broken off by any heavy wind, owing to their soft, succulent 
texture. Only the best placed and most vigorous of the two 
shoots should be tied up. If this shoot is growing ui)right 
and near the stake, this can be done without any danger of 
injuring it. In this case the second shoot should be removed. 
If the shoot has to be })ent over in tying it to the stake it may 



164 MANUAL OF AMERICAN (J RAPE-GROW I KG 

be injured. In such a case the second shoot should be allowed 
to grow until it is known whether the first has been injured. 
In case of injury the second shoot can be tied up the next time 
the vines are visited and the injured shoot removed. 

At the tying up of the reserved shoots, all new shoots which 
have developed since the first disbudding should be removed. 
The shoots should be tied up loosely, as they are soft and easily 
injured, and they should be brought around carefully to the 
windward side of the stake. 

The shoots will require tying once more when they have 
grown another foot or eighteen inches. There will then be two 
ties, one at two or three inches from the top of the stake and 
the other at about the middle. If the vines have a tall stake 
and are to be headed very high, another tying higher up may 
be needed later. 

With vines making only a moderate growth, no other prun- 
ing will be needed until the winter. Exceptionally vigorous 
vines, however, may make a cane eight, ten or more feet 
long. Such a cane is heavy and is very likely to break the 
ropes by which it is attached to the stake. In this case it 
may break off at the bottom, or at least will form an awkward 
crook near the ground when it matures. In either case it is 
difficult to form a good trunk the following year. Even when 
the ties do not break, the cane will not be well suited for 
the commencement of a trunk, as the joints will be so long 
that it will be impossible to leave enough well-placed buds at 
the winter pruning. 

Both these difficulties are avoided by timely topping. When 
such vigorously growing canes have grown twelve or eighteen 
inches above the top of the stake they are cut back about level 
with the stake. This is most conveniently done with a long- 
bladed knife or piece of split bamboo. After topping, the 
cane ceases to grow in length and laterals start at most of the 
joints. It is less exposed to the action of the wind, and the 




Pl.'Vte XIII. — Dutchess (X|). 



GRAPE-PRVMSa OK THE PACIFIC SLOPE 16.5 

laterals supply tlic l)U(ls needed tor Forming the \iiie at the 
winter pruning;. 

The result of the second season's jfrowth, then, has been to 
produce a single vigorous cane with or without laterals. This 
is the cane which is to develo]) into the final and permanent 
trunk of the vine. It nuist not only he large and vigorous, but 
must be properly matured. If the vine is allowed to grow too 
late in tlie season, an early frost may destroy the unmatured 
cane, and much of the results of the year's growth will l)e wasted. 
Such a frost may indeed kill the entire vine, (drafted vines are 
particularly liable to injury from this cause, as if they are killed 
down to the union they are completely ruined. Ingrafted 
vines when killed to the ground may be renewed from a sucker 
next year. This sucker, however, is likely to grow with such 
vigor that it is even more liable to injury from an autumn frost 
than the original shoot. 

This late growth is much more likely to occur with young 
vines than with old. The old vines stop growing earlier be- 
cause their energies are directed into the crop, and as they 
produce a larger amount of foliage they draw more upon the 
moisture of the soil, which therefore dries out earlier. 

Late growth of the young vines must be prevented and the 
wood matured before frost if possible. This is accomplished by 
means which i)romote the drying of the soil in autumn. Late 
irrigations should be avoided. Cultivation should usually 
stop by mid-summer. In very moist, rich soils, it is often an 
advantage to grow corn, sunflowers or similar crops between 
the rows of vines to take off the surplus moisture. In some 
cases it is good practice to let the summer weeds grow for the 
same purpose. 

Second icinter pruning. 

With vines which have been treated as described and to 
which no accident has happened, the second winter pruning is 



166 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

very simple. It consists simply in cutting back the single cane 
which has been allowed to grow to the height at which it is 
desired to head the vine. 

The vine so pruned consists of a single cane which with the 
older wood at the base reaches nearly to the top of the stake, 
or fifteen inches. This if properly treated will develop into a 
vine with a trunk of about twelve inches, though this length 
can be modified slightly, as will be explained later. 

This cane consists of about seven or eight joints or internodes, 
with an equal number of well-formed eyes and an indefinite 
number of dormant buds, principally near the base of the cane 
or junction of the one- and two-year-old wood. Only the buds 
on the upper half of this cane will be allowed to grow. These 
buds — about four — should give six to eight bunches of 
grapes and four, six, or eight shoots from which to form the 
spurs at the following winter pruning. 

With a vine which has been cut back to form a high head, 
the cane is about twenty-four inches long and can be used to 
form a trunk eighteen inches high, though this height can be 
modified as in the last case. As with the shorter cane, only 
the buds on the upper half will be allowed to produce shoots. 
These — about six — should give ten to twelve bunches and 
the shoots necessary for the formation of spurs. 

In all cases a full internode has been left above the top bud. 
This is done by cutting through the first bud above the high- 
est Avhich it is desired to have grow. This cut is made in such 
a way as to destroy the bud but to leave the diaphragm intact 
and part of the swelling of the node. This upper internode is 
left partly to protect the upper bud , but principally to facilitate 
tying. By making a half-hitch around this internode, the vine 
is held very firmly. If the swelling at the node of the destroyed 
bud is not left, many vines will be pulled out of the hitch when 
they become heavy with leaves and supple with the flow of 
sap in the spring. 



GKAPE-PRiiMNG ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 107 

In tying the \ines, no turns or hitdies nnist l)e made around 
any part ex(vi)t this ujjjH'r intt'rnodc A hitch hclow thr top 
hnd w ill rtsnlt in a crook-iu'ckcd \\\\v, as the top will hciid oxer 
in the sunnner mtdcr the \vei<,dit of the rolia<:c. A hitch lower 
down is even more harmful, as it will j^irdleand stranf;le the \ inc. 

A seeond tie about half way from the upper to the ,y;round is 
alwa\s necessary to straighten the cane. \\\q\\ if the cane is 
straight when pruned, a second tie is needed to keep it from 
curving under the pressure of leaves and wind in the spring. 
For high-headed vines three ties are usually necessary. 

For the top tie, wire is particularly suitable. It holds bet- 
ter than twine and does not wear. Even though it is not re- 
moved, it does no harm, as the part around which it is wound 
does not grow. The lower ties should be of softer material, as 
wire has a tendency to cut into the wood. They should be 
placed so that the cane is able to expand as it grows. With 
thin and especially with round stakes this means that the tie 
must be loose. With large, square stakes there is usually suf- 
ficient room for expansion, even when the twine is tied tight. 

Third summer pruning. 

During the third season, average well-grown vines will pro- 
duce their first considerable crop and develop the canes from 
which will be formed the first arms. 

Such a vine, soon after the starting of the buds in spring, 
will have one vigorous shoot about three inches long grown 
from the old wood and five fruit buds started above on the 
cane. All the buds and shoots below the middle of the cane 
should be removed. 

This will leave the four or five fruit buds and will give tlie 
vine the opportunity to produce eight or ten bunches of grapes. 
These buds will produce also at least four or fi\e shoots. If 
the vine is very vigorous and the season faNoTable, they may 
produce' eight, ten or more. 



168 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

When the five shoots grow, the height of the head will be 
determined at the next winter priming by which of the corre- 
sponding canes are left as spurs. If the highest two canes 
are cut back to spurs and all others removed, the vine will 
be headed as high as possible, as these two spurs form 
the two first arms which determine the length of the trunk. 
If the lowest two canes are chosen and all of the vine above 
them removed, the trunk will be made as low as possible. 
Intermediate heights can be obtained by using some other 
two adjacent canes and removing the rest. It is often advis- 
able to leave some extra spurs lower than it is desired to head 
the vine and to remove these lower spurs the following winter 
after they have borne a crop. For example, the three or four 
upper canes might be left, if the vine is vigorous, enough, and 
the lowest one or two of these removed at the next pruning. 
This, however, is not often necessary with properly handled 
vines and is objectionable because it makes large wounds in 
the trunk. 

Third winter pruning. 

At the end of the third season's growth the vine should have 
a straight, well-developed trunk with a number of vigorous 
canes near the top from which to form the arms. 

Figure 28 represents a well-grown vine at this period. No 
shoots have been allowed to grow on the lower part of the 
trunk and the five buds allowed to grow above have produced 
nine vigorous canes. The pruner should leave enough spurs 
to supply all the fruit buds that the vine can utilize. The 
number, size and thickness of the canes show that the vine is 
very vigorous and can support a large crop. It will depend 
somewhat on the variety how many buds should be left. For 
a variety whose bunches average one pound, and which pro- 
duces two bunches to the shoot, twelve fruit buds should give 
about twenty-four pounds, or about seven tons per acre, if the 



GRAPE-PRUNING OX THE PACIFIC SLOPE 



169 



vinrs arr planted 12 by (i feet, as these were. The number of 
spurs will depend on their length. Six spurs of two buds each 




Fig. 28. Three-year-old vine read\" for pruning. 

will give the required number, but as some of these eanes are 
exceptionally vigorous they should be left a little longer, in 
which case a smaller number of spurs will suffice. 

When the number and length of the spurs are decided on, the 
canes should be chosen Avhich will leave these spurs in the most 
suitable position for forming arms. This 
position will depend on whether we want 
a vase-form or fan-shaped vine. In the 
first case, we choose those which will dis- 
tribute the spurs most evenly and sym- 
metrically on all sides, avoiding any which 
cross or point downwards. 

In the second case, we choose only 
those canes which run in the direction of 
the trellis, avoiding canes which stick out 
between the rows. Downward pointing 
canes may be used in this case. 

Figure 29 shows the vine after pruning for a vase-formed 
head. The pruner has used two of the strongest canes to form 




-f^' 



Fig. 29. Vine of 
Fig. 28 after pruning 
for vase-formed head. 



170 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



two three-bud spurs and three of medium vigor to form three 
two-bud spurs. The head is of good shape, though some of the 
spurs are a little too low. One, two, or three of these can be 
removed at the following winter pruning, and the permanent 
arms and head of the vine formed from canes which develop 

on the two highest spurs. If 
the vine were too high, the head 
could be developed the next 
year from the three lowest spurs 
and the upper part remo^'ed. 

Figure 30 shows vines of the 
same age of practically perfect 
shape. Less spurs have been 
left because the vines were less 
vigorous. It is easier to prop- 
erly shape vines which make 
only a moderate growth during 

Fig. 30. Three-year-old vines : ^^e first three seasons. On the 

A, pruned for a vase-formed, and other hand, Very vigOrOUS vinCS 

B, for a fan-shaped head. £ ii u u Ui. • x 

can finally be brought mto 
practically perfect shape and the somewhat larger and more 
numerous wounds necessary are more easily healed by a vig- 
orous vine. 





A 



B 



Pruning after the third winter. 

For the pruner who understands the pruning of young vines 
and has brought them to approximately the form represented 
in Figs. 29 and 30, the subsequent winter pruning is very simple. 
It involves, however, one new idea — the distinction between 
fruit and sterile wood. 

Up to the third winter pruning, this distinction is not neces- 
sary; first, because practically all the wood is fruit wood, and 
second, because the necessity of forming the vine controls the 
choice of wood. From this time on, however, this distinction 



GRAPE-PRUMXG 0\ THE PACIFIC SLOPE 



171 



must he rnrofiilly made. At each winter pruning a mimher of 
spurs of fruit wood must he left to produce the crop to he ex- 
pected from the size and \i{]jor of the vine. Besides these 
fruit spurs, it may he necessary to leave spurs of sterile wood 
to permit of increasing the numher of fruit spurs the following 
year. 

This will he made clear hy comparing Figs. 30 A and 31. 
Figure 30 A shows a \-ine at the third winter pruning with two 
fruit spurs of two huds each and one fruit spur of one bud — 
five fruit huds in all. 

If these fi\'e fruit buds all produce vigorous shoots during the 
following summer, they will supply five canes of fruit wood 
which can he used to form five fruit spurs at the following win- 
ter pruning, which will be about the 
normal increase necessary. Some of 
these fruit buds, however, may produce 
weak shoots or shoots so badly placed 
that they would spoil the shape of the 
head if used for spurs. Other shoots, 
howe\'er, will be produced from base, 
secondary and adventitious buds which, 
while less fruitful, can be used to form 
spurs for the starting of new arms. 

Figure 31 shows a vine after the 
fourth winter pruning which had devel- 
oped from a vine similar to that shown 
in Fig. 30 A, From the three fruit 

spurs left the l)revioUS >-ear four canes vme^Pruned for vase-formed 

ha\e been chosen for the fruit spurs of 

this year. The old spur on the left has furnished two new 
spurs and the two old spurs at the right each one new spur. 
The pruner, judging that the vine is sufficiently vigorous to 
stand more wood, has formed two spurs from water sprouts 
which, while not likely to produce much fruit the first season. 




Fio. 31. Four-year-old 



172 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

will supply fruit wood for the following year. The result is a 

very well-shaped vine with six almost perfectly balanced spurs. 

These spurs will develop into permanent arms, some of them 

furnishing finally two or three. 

Figure 32 shows a high-headed vine of the same age. It has 

five spurs, of which four are fruit spurs and one a spur of sterile 
wood left to shape the vine. The two more 
or less horizontal spurs on the right will bear 
fruit the following autumn and will be re- 
moved entirely at the following winter prun- 
ing, as they are badly placed. The arms of 
the ^•inc will then be developed from the 
three upright spurs, which are excellently 
placed. 

Each year thereafter the same process must 
be followed. First, enough fruit spurs, as 
well placed as possible, must be left to pro- 

FiG. 32. Four- , , , u J 4- • 

year-old vine pruned duce the crop. becond, on most vmes sup- 
for high vase-formed piemen tary spurs of sterile wood must be left 
to supply more arms where they are needed, 
and finally, when the full complement of arras has developed, 
to supply new arms to replace those which have become too 
long or are otherwise defective. 

Fan-shaped vines. 

With headed vines, the treatment up to the third winter is 
the same except for the variations in the height of the head. 
At the third winter pruning, however, the formation of the head 
commences, and the pruner determines whether it shall be 
vase-formed or fan-shaped. The production of a vase-formed 
head has already been described. 

At the third winter pruning, the vine should be pruned to 
two spurs, as shown in Fig. 30 B. INIore ^-igorous vines should 
not be given more spurs, as in Figs. 29 and 30 A, but the spurs 




T-f^if-'s*^- •• 



GRAPE-FKlMXa ().\ THE IWCIFIC SLOPE 



173 



should be made longer, with four, fi\'e, or even six eyes in some 
cases. This is in order to ohtain some fruit, which might not 
l>e obtained from long pinning \arieties hy lea\ing many 
spurs. With extremely xigorous ^■ines one fruit cane may be 
left at this i)ruuing. The wires of the trellis should be put up 
this year, if this has not already been done. 

Fig. 33 A and 33 B illustrates the second step in the production 
of a fan-shaped head. This form of head is used only for trel- 
lised \ines and long-pruned 
varieties. The formation 
of the head and the manage- 
ment of the fruit canes are 
therefore con\eniently dis- 
cussed together. 

By comparing the pruned 
vine, Fig. 33 B, with the 
unpruned, Fig. 33 A, the 
method of pruning will be 
made clear. The unpruned 
vine shoAvs two arms, the 
spurs of the previous year, 
from one of which have 
grown three \'igorous canes 
and from the other two 
somewhat less vigorous. 
The pruned vine shows a complete unit, that is, a fruit cane 
with its accompanying renewal spur on the vigorous side and 
a spur for the production of fruit wood for the following year 
on the other side. If the vine had been more A'igorous two 
complete units would have been left and one or two extra 
spurs. 

As the form of the vine is determined by the renewal spurs, 
special attention should be paid to their position. In this case, 
the middle cane on one arm and the lower cane on the other 




Fig. 33. 



-.4, before pruning; B, after 
pruning. 



174 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 


have been used for renewal spurs. This brings them both to 
the same height above the ground and determines the place of 
the permanent arms. The next year each of these spurs will 
furnish a fruit cane and one or two renewal spurs. The arms 
will thus in two or three years be increased to four, or, with 
very large vines, to six. These spurs should be chosen as nearly 
as possible in the plane of the trellis, that is, they should not 
project out sideways. Figure 25 shows vines of this kind of 
full size and in full bearing. 

The fruit canes also should be as nearly as possible in the 
direction of the trellis, though this is not so important, as they 
can be bent over to the wire when tied up, and in any case they 
are removed the next year. 

Double-headed vines. 

Some growers attempt to arrange the arms of their vines in 
two stages, one above the other, forming double-headed or two- 
crowned vines. The method is applied to both vase-formed and 
trellised vines. It is open to the same criticisms as the vertical 
cordon, the chief of which is that it cannot be maintained 
permanently. The lower head or ring of arms finally becomes 
weak and fails to produce wood. 

It is easier to maintain in trellised vineyards and has some 
advantages, the chief of which is that it makes it easier to keep 
the vine in the single plane and to prevent arms getting into 
the inter-rows. The double trunk is not necessary and is, in 
fact, a disadvantage, as one trunk has a tendency to grow at 
the expense of the other. 

Vertical arid boived canes. 

Figure 24 A shows a long-pruned vine in which the fruit canes 
have been tied vertically to a tall stake. This is a method used 
commonly in many vineyards. The unit of pruning is the same 
as in the method just described, consisting of a fruit cane and 



GRAPE-PRUMXC. OS THE PACIFIC SLOPE 175 

a renewal sjiur. "^riio framework of the \ ine consists of a trunk 
of medium heifjht, with a vase-formed head consisting of three 
or four arms. The defects of this system have been j^ointed 
out on page 15."). 

It is used with fair success with seedless Sultanas and with 
some wine grapes such as Colombar, Semillon, Cabernet, and 
Riesling, in the hands of skillful i)runers. The results with 
Sultanina are very unsatisfactory. 

By this method, on most of the vines, the fruit canes start 
from high up near the middle of the stake, and are therefore 
too short for the best results. The canes which start from low 
down are in most cases suckers, and therefore of little value for 
fruit bearing. 

Figure 24 B shows a vine with bowed canes. The method of 
pruning is exactly the same as in the method just described. 
The bowing of the canes, however, overcomes some of the 
defects of that method. It is used regularly in many wine 
grape vineyards of the cooler regions. It is unsuited for very 
vigorous vines in rich soil. 

Veriical cordons. 

In head pruning, the treatment of young vines up to the 
second or third winter pruning is identical for all systems. In 
cordon pruning the treatment for the first and second is also 
the same. That is, the vine is cut back to two buds near the 
level of the ground until a cane sufficiently long to serve for 
the formation of the trunk is obtained. 

In the vertical cordon the trunk is three to four feet long in- 
stead of one to two, as in head pruning. This makes it neces- 
sary to have a longer and more vigorous cane to start with. It 
may require a year longer to obtain this. That is to say, at 
the end of the second season's growth many vines will not have 
a single cane sufficiently developed to give the necessary three 
and one-half feet of well-ripened wood and properly developed 



176 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 




buds. At the second winter pruning, therefore, it will often be 

necessary to cut the vine back to two buds, as at the first winter 

pruning. 

Finally, a cane of the required length will be obtained. The 

vine is then formed as already described for the second winter 
pruning of headed vines, except that the cane 
is left longer. When such a vine is pruned, 
spurs are left at intervals along the trunk, as 
shown in Fig. 34. Each of these spurs is a 
fruit spur and is also the commencement of 
an arm. The future treatment of these arms 
is the same as that of the arms in head 
pruning. 

Horizontal cordons. 

During the first two or three years, vines 
which are to be given the form of horizontal 
cordons are treated exactly as for vertical 
cordons, that is, they are pruned back to two 
buds each winter and the growth forced by 
disbudding into a single cane during the siunmer. 

As soon as a well-ripened cane of the required length is ob- 
tained, it is tied to a wire stretched horizontally along the row 
at from fifteen to twenty-four inches from the ground. 

For this system of pruning, the rows should be twelve to 
fourteen feet apart and the vines six, seven, or eight feet apart 
in the rows. As the cordon or trunk of each vine should reach 
the next vine, it will have to be six to eight feet long. The best 
shape is obtained when the trunk is all formed one year from a 
single cane. It is necessary, however, sometimes to take two 
years for the formation of the trunk. In any case, the cane first 
tied down should reach at least half way to the next vine. The 
following year a new cane from the end of this should be used 
to complete the full length of the trunk. 



Fig. 34. Verti- 
cal cordon, young 
vine pruned. 



GRAPE PRUMXa OX THE PACIFIC SLOPE 



177 



In attaching the cane to the wire, it ninst be bent over in a 
gentle cnrve and care taken not to break or injure it. The 
proper form of the bend is shown in Figs. 27 and 35. Sharp 
bends shoukl be avoi(k'(k 

The cane shoukl be placed on top of the wire, but should 
not be twisted around it. The end should be tied firmly and 




Fio. 35. Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long pruning. 

the rest of the cane supported by strings tied loosely in order 
to avoid girdling when the cane grows. 

In the following spring, most of the buds on a good cane will 
start. If the cane is short jointed, some of the shoots should be 
removed and only those shoots allowed to develop which are 
conveniently situated for permanent arms. If the vines are 
to be short pruned, the arms should be developed every eight to 

N 



178 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

twelve inches from a few inches beyond the bend to the extreme 
end. For long pruning, the arms should be farther apart, 
twelve to twenty inches. Shoots starting from the top of the 
cane and growing vertically upwards are to be preferred. 

As the shoots develop, the strongest should be pinched re- 
peatedly, if necessary. This will tend to force the growth of 
the weaker shoots and to equalize the vigor of all. At the end 
of the season, there should be from five to ten canes growing on 
each cordon of full length. These canes are then pruned back 
to two or three buds, or a little longer for long-pruned varieties. 

During the following spring and summer, the vines should 
be carefully suckered and unnecessary water sprouts removed. 
Any shoots coming from the lower side of the cordon should be 
removed early to strengthen the growth in the shoots on the 
upper side. Such vines are apt to become dry or decayed on 
the upper side. At the end of this year, which should be the 
fourth or fifth from planting at the latest, the cordon will be 
fully formed and the final style of pruning can be applied. 
A short-pruned cordon vine is shown in Fig. 27. The arms 
and spurs are a little too numerous and too close together. 
If this vine required the number of buds shown it would have 
been better to have left the fruit spurs longer and to have left 
fewer and shorter wood spurs. 

The upper vine of Fig. 35 shows a cordon pruned half long. 
This is an excellent system for Malaga, Emperor, and C'orni- 
chon when growing in very fertile soil. It gives the half-long 
fruit canes, which these varieties need to produce good crops. 
The fruit canes may be attached to a wire twelve or fifteen 
inches above the cordon or bent down and tied to the cordon 
itself, as in the lower vine of the figure. The first method is 
the more convenient, but the second is necessary where there 
is difficulty in obtaining satisfactory growth from the renewal 
spurs. When the fruit canes are tied down, as indicated in 
the lower vine, renewal spurs may not be needed, as vigorous 



GRAPE-FRUM.\G OX THE PACIFIC SLOPE 179 

shoots will usually be obtained from the lower buds of the 
fruit canes. 

Choice of a system. 

In choosing a system, we must consider carefullv' the char- 
acteristics of the particular variety we are growing. A variety 
which bears only on the upper buds must be i)rune(l "long," 
that is, nuist be given fruit canes. It shoukl be noted that many 
varieties, such as Petite Sirah, which will bear with short prun- 
ing when grafted on resistant roots require fruit canes when 
growing on their own roots. In general, grafted vines require 
shorter pruning than ungrafted. If pruned the same, the 
grafted vines may overbear and quickly exhaust themselves. 
This seems to be the principal reason for the frequent failure of 
Muscat vines grafted on resistant stock. The cultural condi- 
tions also affect the vine in this respect. Vines made vigorous 
by rich soil, abundant moisture, and thorough cultivation re- 
quire longer pruning than weaker vines of the same variety. 

The normal size of the bunch is also of importance. This 
size will vary from one-quarter of a pound to 2 or 3 pounds. It 
is difficult to obtain a full crop from a variety whose bunches 
are very small without the use of fruit canes. Spurs will not fur- 
nish enough fruit buds without crowding them inconveniently. 
On the other hand, some shipping grapes may bear larger crops 
when pruned long, but the bunches and berries may be too small 
for the l)est quality. 

The possibilities of development vary much with different 
varieties. A Mission or Flame Tokay may be made to cover 
a quarter of an acre and develop a trunk four or five feet in cir- 
cumference. A Zinfandel vine under the same conditions would 
not reach a tenth of this size in the same time. Vines in a rich 
valley soil will grow much larger than on a poor hillside. The 
size and shape of tlie trunk must be modified accordingly and 
adapted to the available room or number of vines to the acre. 



180 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWINO 

The shape of the vine must be such as to protect it as much 
as possible from various unfavorable conditions. A variety 
susceptible to oidium, like the Carignane, must be pruned so 
that the fruit and foliage are not unduly massed together. Free 
exposure to light and air are a great protection in this respect. 
The same is true for varieties like the Muscat, which have a 
tendency to "coulure" if the blossoms are too moist or shaded. 
In frosty locations, a high trunk will be a protection, as the air 
is always colder close to the ground. 

The qualities required in the crop also influence our choice of 
a pruning system. With wine grapes, even, perfect ripening and 
full flavor are desirable. These are obtained best by having 
the grapes at a uniform height from the ground and as near to 
it as possible. The same qualities are desirable in raisin grapes, 
with the addition of large size of the berries. With shipping 
grapes, the size and perfection of the berries and bunches are 
the most essential characteristics. The vine, therefore, should 
be so formed that each bunch hangs clear, free from injurious 
contact with canes or soil and equally exposed to light and air. 

The maximum returns in crop depend on the early bearing of 
young vines, the regularity of bearing of mature vines and the 
longevity of the vineyard. These are insured by careful at- 
tention to all the details of pruning, but are possible only when 
the vines are given a suitable form. 

The running expenses of a vineyard depend in a great meas- 
ure on the style of pruning adopted. Vines of suitable form are 
cultivated, pruned and the crop gathered easily and cheaply. 
This depends also both on the form of vine adopted and on 
care in details. 

It is impossible, therefore, to state for any particular variety 
or any particular location the best style of pruning to be adopted. 
All that can be done is to give the general characteristics of 
the variety and to indicate how these may be modified by 
grafting, soil or climatic or other conditions. 



GRAPE-PRUNINa 0\ THE PACIFIC SLOPE 181 

The most im])()rtant cliiiract eristic of the variety in making 
a choice of a j)ruuin<j; system is whether it normally or nsnally 
requires short, haU'-long, or long pruning. With this idea, the 
principal grapes grown in California, together with all those 
grown at the Exi)eriment Station on which data exist, have 
been dixided into fi\e grou})s in the following list : 

1. \'arictir.s- irhicli require long pruning under all conditions. 
— Clairette blanche, Corinth white and black, Seedless Sul- 
tana, Sultanina white (Thompson's Seedless) and rose. 

12. ]'ariefics' irlnch iisualli/ require long pruning. — Bastardo, 
Boal de Madeira, Chardonay, Chauche gris and noir, Colom- 
bar, Crabbe's Black Burgundy, Durif, Gamais, Kleinberger, 
Luglienga, Marsanne, Marzemino, ]\Ierlot, Meunier, Mus- 
cadelle de Bordelais, Xebbiolo, Pagadebito, Peverella, Pinots, 
Rieslings, Robin noir, Rulander, Sauvignon blanc, Semillon, 
Serine, Petite Sirah, Slancamenca, Steinschiller, Tinta Cao, 
Tinta ^Madeira, Trousseau, Verdelho, Petit Verdot, Walcheris- 
ling. 

3. Varieties which fisualli/ require short pruning. — Aleatico, 
Aligote, Aspiran, Bakator, Bouschets, Blaue Elbe, Beba, Bon- 
arda, Barbarossa, Catarattu, Charbono, Chasselas, Freisa, 
Frontignan, Furmint, Grand noir, Grosseblaue, Green Hun- 
garian, ^Malmsey, Mantuo, Monica, Mission, !Moscatello fino, 
Mourisco branco, Mourisco preto, Xegro amaro, Palomino, 
Pedro Zumbon, Perruno, Pizzutello di Roma, Black Prince, 
West's AVhite Prolific, Quagliano, Rodites, Rozaki, Tinta 
Amarella, Vernaccia bianca, Vernaccia Sarda. 

4. Varieties which rcijuire short pruning under all conditions. — 
Aramon, Burger, Chardonay, Chauche gris and noir, Colom- 
bar, Crabbe's Black Burgundy, Durif, Black Morocco, 'Wow- 
rastel, Muscat of Alexander, Xapoleon, Picpoule blanc and 
noir. Flame Tokay, Fgni blanc. Venial. Zinfandel. 

.'). ]'arieties of table grapes which usualUi require half-long or 
cordon pruning. — Almeria (Ohanez), Bellino, Bermestia bianca 



182 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

and violacea, Cipro nero, Dattier de Beirut, Cornichon, Emperor, 
Black Ferrara, ^Malaga, Olivette de Cadenet, Pis-de-Chevre 
blanc, Schiradzouli, Zabalkanski. 

These lists must not be taken as indicating absolutely for 
all cases how these varieties are to be pruned. They simply 
indicate their natural tendencies. Certain methods and con- 
ditions tend to make vines more fruitful. Where these occur, 
shorter pruning than is indicated may be advisable. On the 
other hand, other methods and conditions tend to make the 
vines vigorous at the expense of fruitfulness. Where these 
occur, longer pruning may be advisable. 

The more usual factors which tend towards fruitfulness are : 

Grafting on resistant A'ines. especially on certain varieties 
such as those of Riparia and Berlandieri ; 

Old age of the vines ; 

Mechanical or other injuries to any part of the vine ; 

Large development of the trunk, as in the cordon systems. 

The more usual factors which tend towards vigor at the ex- 
pense of fruitfulness are : 

Rich soil, especially large amounts of humus and nitrogen; 

Youth of the vines ; 

Excessive irrigation or rainfall (within limits). 

In deciding what system of pruning to adopt, all these factors, 
together with the nature of the vine and the uses to which the 
fruit is to be put, must be considered. It is best when the 
vineyard is started to err on the side of short pruning. While 
this may diminish slightly the first one or two crops, the vines 
will gain in vigor and the loss will be made up in subsequent 
crops. If the style of pruning adopted results in excessive 
vigor of the vines, it should be gradually changed in the direc- 
tion of longer pruning with the object of utilizing this vigor in 
the production of crop. 

This change should be gradual, or the risk is run of injuring 
the vitality of the vines by one or two excessively heavy crops. 




Plate XIV. — Eaton (X 5). 



GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 183 

Finally, each year the coiulitiDii of the indhidual xiiie should 
deterinine the kind of priiiiiuif to be adopted. If the vine ap- 
pears weak, from \vhate\er cause, it should he pruned shorter 
or given less spurs or fruit canes than the year before. On 
the contrary, if it appears uiuiecessarily \i<f()rous, more or longer 
spurs or fruit canes should be left. Every vine should be judf;ed 
by itself. It is not possible to give more than general directions 
for the pruning of the whole vineyard. It cannot be well pruned 
unless the men who do the actual pruning are capable of using 
sufficient judgment to properly modify their methods for each 
individual vine. 



CHAPTER X 
EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 

As we have seen, there were many efforts to grow European 
grapes in America during the first two centuries in the settle- 
ment of the country. The various attempts, some involving 
individuals, others corporations and in early days even colonies, 
form about the most instructive and dramatic episodes in the 
history of American agriculture. All endeavors, it will be 
remembered, were failures, so dismally and pathetically com- 
plete that we are wont to think of the two hundred years from 
the first settlements in America to the introduction of the 
Isabella, a native grape, as time wasted in futile culture of a 
foreign fruit. The early efforts were far from wasted, how- 
ever, for out of the tribulations of two centuries of grape-grow- 
ing came the domestication of our native grapes, one of the 
most remarkable achievements of agriculture. 

The advent of Isabella and Catawba wholly turned the 
thoughts of vineyardists from Old World to New World grapes. 
So completely, indeed, were viticulturists won by the thousand 
and more native grapes, that for the century which followed 
no one has planted Old World grapes east of the Rockies, while 
vineyards of native species may be found North and South 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 

Meanwhile, much new knowledge has come to agriculture, 
old fallacies have received many hard knocks and chains of 
tradition in which the culture of plants was bound, have been 
broken. In no field of agriculture have workers received 
greater aid from science than in viticulture. ' Particularly 

184 



EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 1^5 

is this tnu' of the (lis(>ases of tlu> \iiu\ The reports of tlu' old 
experimcMitcrs wt-re inucli the same, "a siekness takes hold of 
the \ines and they die." What the sickness was and whether 
there were preventatives or remedies, no one knew a hundred 
years ago. But in the hist half century we have learned much 
about the ills of grapes and now know j)reventati\es or remedies 
for most of them. We know also that the early vine-growers 
failed, in part at least, because they followed empirical Euro- 
pean i)ractices. Is it not possible that with the new knowledge 
we can now grow European grapes in eastern America? The 
New York Agricultural Experiment Station has put this ques- 
tion to test, with results indicating that European grai)es may 
now be grown successfully in eastern America. The following 
is an account of the work with this fruit at the New York 
Station. 

European Grapes at the New York Experiment vStation ^ 

In the spring of 1911, the Station obtained cuttings of 101 
varieties of Em-opean grapes from the Ignited States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and the University of California. The 
cuttings obtained were grafted on the roots of a heterogeneous 
collection of seedlings, five years set, representuig a half dozen 
species of Vitis. These stocks had little to recommend them 
except that all were vigorous, well established and all were more 
immune to phylloxera than the Old W'orld varieties. From 
four to six grafts of each of the hundred varieties were made 
and a stand of 380 vines resulted, the percentage of loss being 
exceedingly small. The success in grafting was probably due 
to the method used, the value of which had been proved in 
previous work on the vStation grounds. The method of graft- 
ing and details of care follow : 

' The following account is founded on work carried on by the author 
at the N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., accounts of which have been given before 
several horticultural societies in 1916, 1917 and 1918. 



186 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Details of care. 

In grafting, the earth was removed from the plants to a 
depth of two or three inches. The vines were sawed squarely 
off below the surface of the ground. The stock was then 
split for a cleft graft. Two cions, made as described on 
page 46, were inserted in each cleft and tied in place 
with waxed string. Wax was not used as it does not stick 
in grafting grapes, because of the bleeding of the stock. 
After setting the cion, the earth was replaced and enough 
more of it used to cover stock and cion to prevent evaporation. 
This method of grafting is available to those who have old 
vineyards. It is so simple that the veriest tyro can thus 
graft grapes. Were young plants or cuttings used as stocks, 
some method of bench grafting would, of course, be resorted to. 

The cultivation and spraying were precisely that given na- 
tive grapes. There has been no coddling of vines. The fungous 
diseases which helped to destroy the vineyards and vexed the 
souls of the old experimenters were kept in check by two 
sprayings with bordeaux mixture ; the first application was 
made just after the fruit set, the second when the grapes were 
two-thirds grown. Some years a third spraying with a tobacco 
concoction was used to keep thrips in check. Phylloxera was 
present in the vineyard but none of the varieties seemed to 
suffer from this pest. The stocks used were not those best 
suited either to the vines grafted on them or to resist phylloxera. 
Unquestionably some of the standard sorts used in France and 
California from Vitis rupestris or Vitis milpina, or hybrids of 
these species, would give better results. From theoretical 
consideration, it would seem that the Vitis mdpina stocks 
should be best suited to the needs of eastern America. 

It was thought by the old experimenters that European grapes 
failed in New York because of unfavorable climatic condi- 
tions. It was said that the winters were too cold and the sum- 



EUROPEAN GRAPES 1 1\ EASTERN AMERICA 187 

mers too hot and dry for this grape. Diirinp; the years the 
Station vineyard of Viniferas has been in existence, there have 
been stresses of all kinds of weather to which the variable 
climate of New York is subject. Two winters have been ex- 
ceedingly cold, killing peach and pear trees; one summer 
gave the hottest weather and hottest day in twenty -five years ; 
the vines have withstood two severe summer droughts and three 
cold, wet summers. These test seasons have proved that Euro- 
pean grapes will stand the climate of New York as well as the 
native varieties except in the matter of cold ; they must have 
winter protection. 

To growers of American grapes, the extra work of winter 
protection seems to be an insuperable obstacle. The experience 
of several seasons in New York shows that winter protection 
is a cheap and simple matter. Two methods have been used ; 
vines have been covered Avith earth and others have been 
wrapped with straw. The earth covering is cheaper and more 
efficient. The vines are pruned and placed full length on the 
ground and covered with a few inches of earth. The cost of 
winter protection will run from two to three cents a vine. 
Since European vines are much more productive than those 
of American grapes, the added cost of winter protection is 
more than offset by the greater yield of grapes. Trellising, 
also, is simpler and less expensive for the European grapes, 
helping further to ofTset the cost of winter protection. 

Priming. 

It is apparent at once that European grapes must have 
special treatment in i)ruiiing if they are to be laid on the ground 
annually. Several modifications of European and California 
practices can be employed in tlie East to bring the plants in 
condition for winter laying-down. All methods of i)runing 
must have this in connnt)n ; new wood must be brought up 
from the base of the plant every year to permit bending the 



188 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

plant. This can be done by leaving a replacing spur at the 
base of the trunk. If two-eye cions are used when the plants 
are grafted and both buds grow, the shoot from the upper 
can be used to form the main trunk, while that from the lower 
bud will supply the replacing spur. Each year all but one of 
the canes coming from this spur are removed and the remaining 
one is cut back to one or two buds until the main trunk begins 
to be too stiff to bend down readily, then one cane from the spur 
is left for a new trunk and another is pruned for a new renewal 
spur. 

The main trunk is carried up only to the lower wire of the 
trellis. At the winter pruning, two one-year canes are selected 
to be tied along this wire, one on each side, and the two renewal 
spurs chosen for tying up and new renewal spurs left. For 
the best production, different varieties require different lengths 
of fruit canes, but the work at Geneva has not progressed far 
enough so that recommendations can be made for particular 
varieties. It has been found best, however, to prune weak 
vines heavily and vigorous ones lightly. Under normal condi- 
tions, from four to eight buds are left on each cane, depending 
on the vigor of the vine. With some of the older seedlings used 
for stocks in 1911 which were so large that two cions were used, 
and in many of those where the roots seemed to have sufficient 
vigor to support the larger top, two trunks were formed, one 
from each graft. By spreading these into a V and making the 
inner arms shorter, very- satisfactory results were secured. 

The type of growth in Vinifera is different from that of 
native grapes. The young shoots which spring from the one- 
year canes, instead of trailing to the ground or running out 
along the trellis wires, grow erect. Advantage must be taken 
of this in the pruning system adopted in the East. The canes 
and the renewal spurs as described above are tied along the 
lower wire ; then the young shoots which come from these 
grow upward to the second wire. When the shoots are four to 



EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 189 

six inches abovr this wire, tlu'V are pinched oil' just ahox e tlie 
wire and any whicli liavc not ah'oady fastened theniseKes are 
tied to j)revent the wind l)reakinfi; them oft". At the same time, 
if any of the axial i)uds on the shoots have hegvni to form second- 
ary shoots, they are rubbed oft", beginninj; with the node next 
abo\e the upper cluster and going down to the old cane. This 
gives the cluster more room and better light. Soon after the 
first heading-back, the ui)per buds of the young shoot start 
lateral growth. The secondary branches usually grow upright 
and when they are several inches high they are topped with a 
sickle. This heading-back results in stockier and n^iore mature 
canes for the following year, ancl if prt)i)erly done adds to the 
fruitfulness of the vine and the fruit matures better. 

General consideraticms. 

The grower of European grapes grafted on American vines 
may be prepared to be surprised at the growth the \ines make. 
At the end of the first season, the grafts attain the magnitude 
of full-sized vines ; the second season they begin to fruit more 
or less abundantly, and the third year they produce approxi- 
mately the same number of bunches as a Concord or Niagara 
vine; and, as tlte bunches of most varieties are larger than 
those of the American grapes, the yield, therefore, is greater. 
The European varieties, also, may be set more closely than 
the American sorts, since they are seldom such rampant 
growers. 

It is too early to reason from this short experiment that we 
are to grow varieties of European grapes commonly in the East, 
but the behavior of the vines under discussion seems to indicate 
that we may do so. At the New" York Station, the European 
varieties are as vigorous and thrifty as American vines and 
quite as easily managed. Why may we not grow these grapes 
if we protect tliem from ])hylloxeru, fungi and cold ? In Europe, 
there are varieties of grapes fur nearly every soil and condition 



190 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

in the southern half of the continent. In eastern Europe and 
western Asia, the vines must be protected just as they must be 
protected here. It seems ahnost certain that from the many 
sorts selected to meet the various conditions of Europe, we shall 
be able to find kinds to meet the diverse soils and climates 
of this continent. And here we have one of the chief reasons 
for wishing to grow these grapes that American grape-growing 
may not be so localized as at present. Probably we shall find 
that European grapes can be grown under a greater diversity 
of conditions than native varieties. 

The culture of European grapes in the East gives this region 
essentially a new fruit. If any considerable degree of success 
attends their culture, wine-making in eastern America will be 
revolutionized, for the European grapes are far superior to 
the native sorts for this purpose. Varieties of these grapes 
have a higher sugar- and solid-content than do those of the 
American species and for this reason, as a rule, keep longer. 
We may thus expect that through these grapes the season for 
this fruit will be extended. The European varieties are better 
flavored, possessing a more delicate and a richer vinous flavor, 
a more agreeable aroma, and are lacking in the acidity and the 
obnoxious foxy taste of many American grapes. Many con- 
sumers of fruit will like them better and the demand for grapes 
thus will be increased. 

The advent of the European grape in the vineyards of eastern 
America ought to greatly increase the production of hybrids 
between this species and the American species of grapes. As 
we have seen, there are many such hybrids, but curiously 
enough scarcely more than a half dozen varieties of European 
grapes have been used in crossing. Most of these have been 
greenhouse grapes and not those that could be expected to 
give best results for vineyard culture. As we come to know 
the varieties best adapted to American conditions, we ought 
to be able to select European parents to better advantage 




Plate XV. — Eclipse (Xf). 



EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 191 

than we ha\e done in the past and by using them produce 
better hybrid sorts. 

T ^arieties. 

From the eighty-five varieties of European grapes now 
fruiting on the grounds of the New York Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, the following are named as worth trying in the 
East for table grapes : Actoni, Bakator, Chasselas Golden, 
Chasselas Rose, Feher Szagos, Gray Pinot, Lignan Blanc, 
]\Ialva»ia, Muscat Hamburg, Palomino and Rosaki. These 
and other Eiu-opean grapes are described in Chapter XVIII; 
Chasselas Golden and ]\Ialvasia are illustrated in Plate V. 



CHAPTER XI 
GRAPES UNDER GLASS 

Grape-growing under glass is on the decline in America. 
Forty or fifty years ago the industry was a considerable one, 
grapes being rather commonly grown near all large cities for 
the market, and nearly every large estate possessing a range of 
glass had a grapery. But grapes are better and more cheaply 
grown in Europe than in America, and the advent of quick 
transportation permits English, French- and Belgian grape- 
growers to send their wares to American markets more cheaply 
than they can be grown at home. For the present, the world 
war has stopped the importation of luxuries from Europe, 
and American gardeners ought to find the culture of grapes 
under glass profitable; they may expect also to be able to 
hold the markets for many years to come because of the destruc- 
tion of Belgian houses and the shortage of labor in Europ(; 
resulting from the war. 

Amateur gardeners ought never to let the culture of grapes 
under glass wane, since the hot-house grape is the consumma- 
tion of the gardener's skill. Certainly the forcing of no other 
fruit yields such generous rewards. Grapes grown under 
glass are handsomer in appearance and better in quality than 
those grown out-of-doors. The clusters often attain enormous 
size, a weight of twenty to thirty pounds being not uncommon. 
The impression prevails that to grow grapes under glass, one 
must have expensive houses; this is not necessary, and "hot- 
house grapes" is a misnomer, the fruit really being grown in 

192 



GRAPES UXDER GLASS 193 

colli or relatively cool houses which need not be expensive. 
Grapes are jj^rown inider ^\iis<, with greater ease and certainty 
tlian is imagined by those who I'orm the opinion from buying 
the fruit at high prices in delicatessen stores. A grapery need 
not be an expensive luxury, and the culture of grapes under 
glass can be rect)mmende(l to persons of moderate means who 
are looking for a horticultural hobby. 

The Grapery 

Almost any of the various modifications of greenhouses 
can be adapted to growing grapes. Firms constructing green- 
houses usually have had experience in building graperies, and, 
as a rule, it will pay to have these professional builders put up 
the house. If the actual work is not done by a builder, it is 
possible to purchase plans and estimates, from which, if suffi- 
ciently detailed, local builders can work. On small places 
there is no doubt that the lean-to houses are most suitable, 
being inexpensive and furnishing protection from prevailing 
winds. These lean-tos should face the south and may be 
built against the stable, garage or other building; or better, 
a brick or stone wall to the north may be erected. It is possible 
to build a small grapery as a lean-to out of hot-house sash. 

In commercial establishments and for large estates, where 
the grapery must be more or less ornamental, a span-roof house 
is rather better adapted to the grapery than a lean-to, especially 
if the house is not to be used for the production of grapes early 
in the season. On account of the exposure of the span-roof 
house on all sides, however, rather more skill must be exercised 
ill growing grapes in them than in the better protected lean-to 
grapery. Whatever the house, it must be so constructed as 
to furnish an abundance of light, a requisite in which much is 
gained b\' having large-si'/c glasses for the glazing. The glass 
must Ix* of the best quality, otherwise the foliage and fruit 



194 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

may be blistered by the sun's rays being focused through 
defective spots. 

Light, heat, moisture and good ventilation are all required 
in the grapery. Brick or stone are preferable to woodwork, 
as heat and moisture in the grapery are quickly destructive 
to wood foundations. If wood is used, only the most durable 
kinds should enter into the construction of the house. The 
under structure of masonry or of wood should be low, not higher 
than 18 inches or 2 feet before the superstructure of glass 
begins. The grapery must be well ventilated. There must 
be large ventilators at the peak of the house and small ones 
just above the foundation walls or in the foundation walls 
themselves. The ventilation should be such that the house 
can be kept free from draughts or sudden changes of tempera- 
ture, as the grape under glass is a sensitive plant, and subject 
to mildew. Plenty of air, therefore, is an absolute necessity 
to the grapes, especially during the ripening of the fruit. The 
lower ventilators in graperies are seldom much used until the 
grapes begin to color, at which time the new growth, foliage 
and fruit are hardened, but from this time on upper and lower 
ventilators must be so manipulated that the houses are always 
generously aired. 

Grapes can be forced in cold houses without the aid of arti- 
ficial heat and formerly these cold graperies were very popular ; 
but in the modern houses for growing this fruit, artificial heat 
is now considered a necessity, even though the heating appara- 
tus may seldom be in use. For a finely finished product, a 
little heat to warm the room and dry the atmosphere may be 
absolutely necessary at a critical time, this often saving a 
house of grapes. Of heating apparatus, little need be said. 
Standard boilers for heating greenhouses with either steam 
or hot water are now to be purchased of many designs for almost 
every style and condition of house. Since the grapery seldom 
requires high heat, hot water is rather to be preferred to steam, 



GRAPES UXDER GLASS 195 

although there is no objection to steam, especially if the grapery 
is a part of a large range of glass. 

The border. 

The border in which the vines are to be planted is the most 
important part of the grapery. All subsequent eil'orts fail if 
the border lacks in two imperatives, good drainage and a soil 
that is rich but not too rich. The grapery must be Ijuilt on 
well-drained land or elevated above the ground to permit the 
construction of a properly drained border. "Border," in 
the sense of its being a strip or a narrow bed just inside the 
house, is now a misnomer, though the name undoubtedly 
comes from tiie fact that narrow beds inside the house were 
at one time used in which to plant vines. The border in a 
modern grapery now occupies all of the ground surface inside 
the house and may extend several feet outside the house. 

JVIuch skill is required in building the border. A good formula 
is : Six parts loamy turf from an old pasture ; one part of well- 
rotted cow manure; one part of old plaster and one part of 
ground bone. These ingredients are composted and if the 
work is well done will meet very well the soil and food require- 
ments of the grape. This formula can be varied according to 
soil conditions and somewhat in accordance with the variety 
planted. Unless natural drainage is well-nigh perfect, the 
border must be under-drained with tile and in any case a layer 
of old brick or stone is needful to make certain that the drainage 
is perfect. At least two feet, better three feet, of the border 
compost should be placed above the drainage material. In a 
border made as described, the grape finds ample root-run, but 
not too much, as in a surprisingly short time roots are found 
throughout all parts of this extensive border. 

The care of the border is a matter of considerable moment 
and varies, of course, with tiiose in charge. The usual procedure 
is to spade the outside border, if the border extends outside, 



196 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

before winter, after which it is covered with a coating of well- 
rotted manure, without any particular attempt having been 
made to keep out the frost, as a certain amount of freezing 
outside of the house is held to be beneficial. The inside border 
must be spaded just before the vines are started in the spring, 
having been covered previously with well-rotted manure. 
The time at which the vines are to be started in growth is 
determined by whether an early or a late crop of grapes 
is wanted. For an early crop, the vines must be started 
early in February ; for a late crop, a month or even two 
months later suffices. So started, the first crop of grapes 
comes on in June or July, the later ones following in August 
or September. 

It is related that Napoleon I, to secure saltpetre for making 
gunpowder, composted " filth, dead animals, urine and oflFal 
with alternate laj'ers of turf and lime mortar," and asserted 
that "a nitre-bed is the very pattern of a vine-border" and 
that "when the materials have been turned over and over 
again for a year or two they are in exactly the proper state 
to yield either gunpowder or grapes." Napoleon's niter-bed 
is not now considered a good model for a grape-border, as the 
fruit produced in so rich a soil, though abvmdant, is coarse and 
poorly flavored, and the vines complete their own destruction 
by over-bearing. Gardeners hold that a grape-border may be 
too rich in plant-food, especially too rich in nitrogen. 

Varieties 

Out of the 2000 or more Vinifera grapes, probably not more 
than a score are grown under glass, and of these but a half 
dozen are commonly grown. Black varieties have the prefer- 
ence for indoors, especially if grown for the market, where 
they bring the highest prices. They are also as a rule more 
easily handled indoors than the white sorts. However, as we 



GRAPES UNDER GLASS 197 

shall see, one or two white kinds are indispensable in a house 
of any considerable size. 

Of black grapes, Black Hamburg carries the palm of merit 
because it is most easily grown, best stands neglect, is a heavy 
producer, sets its fruit well, the grapes mature early ; and, 
in particular, it meets the requirements of the unskilled gardener 
better than any other grape. The clusters are not as large 
and the flavor not as good as that of some other sorts. 

IMuscat of Alexandria is the best of the white varieties. It 
is, however, a hard grape to handle since it requires a high tem- 
perature to bring it to perfection, is a little shy in setting fruit 
and the grapes are not very certain in coming to maturity ; 
it also requires a long season. A good quality is that it may 
be kept long after cutting, much longer than Black Hamburg. 

For an earlier white grape, Buckland Sweetwater has much 
to recommend it ; it ripens from two to three weeks earlier 
than Muscat of Alexandria and is much more easily grown. 
It is good in quality but not of high quality. Buckland Sweet- 
water may be well grown in the house with Black Hamburg, 
whereas it is almost impossible to grow Muscat of Alexandria 
in the same house with Black Hamburg. 

Muscat Hamburg is a cross between Black Hamburg and 
Muscat of Alexandria, and is an intermediate in most fruit 
characters between these two standard sorts. It is not, how- 
ever, very generally grown, although it well deserves to be 
because of its large, beautiful, tapering clusters of black grapes 
of finest quality. 

Grizzly Frontignan adds novelty to luxury in the list of 
indoor grapes. The fruits are mottled pink in color, deepening 
sometimes to a dark shade of ])ink,and are borne in long, slender 
clusters. The grapes ripen earl\ and are unsurpassed in quality 
but are, all in all, rather difficult to grow. 

Barbarossa and Gros Colman are the two best late black 
grapes, especially for those who are ambitious to grow clusters 



198 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

of large size with large berries. Both are very good in quality. 
Neither of the two is particularly easy to grow, since they 
require a long time to ripen ; but, to offset this, both keep 
longer than any other sorts after ripening. Because of the 
large size of the berries, thinning must begin early and must 
be rather more severe than with other grapes. This variety 
is now largely grown in England for exportation to this country 
in early spring. 

White Nice and Syrian are two white sorts which attain 
largest size in clusters, specimens weighing thirty pounds be- 
ing not infrequent, but are coarse and poor in quality and 
are, therefore, hardly worth growing. 

Alicante is a black sort often grown for the sake of variety, 
since it departs from the Vinifera type rather markedly in 
flavor. The grapes have very thick ^kins and may be kept 
longer than those of any other variety. 

Lady Downs is another late-keeping black grape of highest 
quality, but difficult to grow. The bunches and berries are 
small in comparison with other standard sorts, characters 
that do not commend the variety to most gardeners. 

Perhaps a dozen more sorts might be named worthy of trial 
in American graperies, but the list given covers the needs of 
commercial establishments and will meet the wants of most 
amateur growers. 

Planting and Training 

Two-year-old vines are most commonly planted. The vines 
are set inside the house at least a foot from the walls and four 
feet apart. The grapery must be built on piers with spaces 
of at least two feet between, and the vines are placed opposite 
these openings in the foundation. When planted, the vines 
are cut back to two or three buds, and when these start the 
strongest are selected for training, the others being rubbed off. 



GRAPES UNDER GLASS 199 

The jjrapery must he strung with wires running lengthwise 
of the house ;it about fifteen inehes from the ghiss. Green- 
house supply nierehants furnish at a low price cast iron brackets 
to be fastened to the rafters to hold these wires. As the growing 
vines reach one wire after another, they are tied with raffia to 
hold them in place. Usually, young vines will reach the peak 
of the house by midsummer, and as soon as this goal is attained 
must be pinched so that the cane may thicken up and store 
food in the lateral buds for the coming season. When the 
wood is well matured, the vine is cut back to half or one-third 
its length, depending on the variety, laid on the ground and 
covered for the winter. An item of no small importance in 
winter care is to keep out mice, this pest being inordinately 
fond of grape buds, and once the buds are destroyed the vines 
are ruined for the coming season. 

The second year's work is largely a repetition of that of the 
first. The \ines are permitted to reach the peak of the house 
and are again stopped by pinching. A considerable number 
of laterals spring up on each side of the main vine, and these 
must be thinned as they develop to stand at the distance apart 
of the wires to which they are fastened. This is pre-supposing 
that the gardener has chosen the spur method of pruning, the 
method generally used in America and the one, all things 
considered, which gives best results. The selection of the 
laterals the second year, therefore, is a matter of much impor- 
tance since spurs are to be developed from them. Care should 
be taken to have these spurs regularly distributed over the 
length of the vine. This second year, grapes must not be per- 
mitted to develop on the terminal shoots, but a few clusters 
may be taken from the laterals in which case the laterals are 
pinched two buds beyond the cluster, the pinching continuing 
throughout the season if the laterals persist in breaking, as they 
will do in most cases. At the end of the season, the terminal 
is shortened at least one-half, and the laterals are pinched back 



200 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

to a bud as close as possible to the main stem. The vines are 
then put down for the winter as at the close of the first season. 

The work of the third season is a repetition of that of the 
second, with the exception that the vine is permitted to fruit 
throughout its whole length, although not more than one 
pound of fruit to a foot of main vine is permitted. The plants 
are now established and the only pruning in this and succeeding 
years is to cut the laterals at the close of each season close to 
the main stem, leaving strong healthy buds of which at least 
one, usually more, will be found close to the stem. If more 
than one bud starts, only the strongest is chosen, although 
often an extra one is needed to fill a vacancy on the opposite 
side. After the third or fourth season, depending somewhat 
on the variety, two pounds of fruit or more to the foot of the 
main stem can be permitted. The novice, however, is likely 
to permit his vines to overbear with the result that the crop 
is cast, or the berries rattle, or the fruit turns sour before ripen- 
ing. From the beginning to the finish of the season, in this 
method of pruning, much pinching of laterals is required. No 
hard and fast rule can be laid down for this pinching, but, 
roughly speaking, all new growth beyond the second joint 
from the cluster should be pinched out as fast as it shows. 
With most varieties, this means that the lateral is kept about 
eighteen inches from the main stem. After a few years, well- 
developed spurs form at the base of the original laterals, and 
from these spurs the new wood comes year after year. 

An alternative method of pruning is to permit the new canes 
to grow up from a bud near the ground each season. When 
the vine is well established, this new cane is fruited through- 
out its entire length, the laterals being pinched as described 
under the spur method. This method of pruning is known as 
"the long cane method." Gardeners hold that they can grow 
better fruit with this than with the spur method, but the diffi- 
culties are greater and the crop is not as large. 



GRAPES UNDER GLASS 201 

Care ok the Vines 

With the cultivation of all varieties indoors, more clusters 
set than the vines can carry. This means that a part of the 
clusters must be removed, an operation that depends on the 
variety and one tliat requires experience and judgment on the 
part of the gardener. Roughly speaking, half the clusters 
are taken, leaving the other half as evenly distributed on each 
side of the vine as possible. The time to take these clusters 
is also a delicate matter, since some sorts are shy in setting and 
the clusters must not be taken until the berries are formed 
and it can be seen how large the crop will be. As a rule, how- 
ever, this thinning of clusters may be begun as soon as the form 
of the cluster can be seen. 

It is very necessary also, especially with all sorts bearing 
large berries, that grapes be thinned in the cluster. The time 
to thin the cluster varies with the variety. Sorts which set 
fruit freely can be thinned sooner than those which are shy in 
setting. On the one hand, the thinning must not be done too 
soon as it cannot be told until the berries are of fair size which 
have set seed and which have not ; however, if thinning is 
neglected too long, the berries become over-crowded and the 
task becomes difficult. The thinning is performed with slender 
scissors, and the bunches must not be touched with the hand, 
as touching impairs the bloom and disfigures the fruit. The 
clusters are turned and steadied by a small piece of pencil- 
shaped wood. Thinning is practiced not only to permit the 
berries to attain their full size but also to permit the bunches 
to attain as great size as possible. If too severely thinned, 
the clusters flatten out after maturity. This is especially 
the case when too many berries are taken from the center 
of the bunch. A large cluster of grapes is made up of several 
small clusters, making it necessary to tie up the upper clusters 
or shoulders of the bunch to permit the berries to swell without 



202 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

being thinned too severely. Grapes intended for long keeping 
require more thinning than those to be used at once after pick- 
ing, since, in keeping, the berries mold or damp-off in the 
center of the bunch if it is too compact. 

The vines in the grapery must be watered with considerable 
care. The amount of water to be used depends on the composi- 
tion of the borders and the season of growth. If the border 
is loose and well-drained, the supply of water must be large; 
if close and retentive, but a small amount of moisture is re- 
quired. Watering must not be done during the period of 
blossoming, since dry air is necessary for proper pollination. 
When the grapes begin to show color, the vines are heavily 
watered, after which little if any water is applied. Some gar- 
deners mulch the vines with hay to retain the moisture in the 
house and keep the atmosphere dry. 

Ventilating the grapery is another important detail of the 
season's work. Proper ventilation is difficult to secure in the 
early spring months when the dryness of the sun on the one 
hand, and cold air on the other, make it difficult to avoid 
draughts and regulate the temperature. Another troublesome 
time is when the grapes begin to color, as it is then necessary 
for the grapery to have air at night ; but when too much air 
enters, there is danger from mildew. Towards the end of the 
season, all parts of the plant become harder in texture and the 
grapery may then be more generously aired. After the fruit 
is cut, the houses are ventilated in full so that the wood may 
ripen properly. 

Pests 

Several pests vex the gardener in growing grapes indoors. 
Of these, mealy-bug, red-spider, thrips and mildew are most 
troublesome. In a well-conducted grapery, there is never an 
intermission in the warfare against these pests. 

INIealy-bug is usually a sign of sloth on the part of the gar- 




Plate XVI. — Elvira (X§). 



GRAPES UNDER GLASS 203 

dencr. In a }:;rapcry devoted exclusively to sripo-growing, it 
shouKl never be seen, but, since gardeners must often grow 
other plants in the grapery, mealy-bug sooner or later appears 
and is often hard to dislodge. It is l)est repelled by removing 
the loose bark on the trunks which harbor the pest and then 
washing with kerosene emulsion. When this becomes neces- 
sary, not only the vines but the rafters and all parts of the house 
shouhi be sprayed with the emidsion. 

Red-spider is another pest usually found in the grapery, but 
it thri\es only in a dry atmosphere and is easily gotten rid of 
by syringing. As soon as red-spider appears in a house its 
appearance is usually known by the reddish tinge on the foliage ; 
syringing should be kept up until the pest is disposed of, keep- 
ing the house damp in all except dull weather. Syringing is 
done only when plenty of air can be given and when it can be 
followed by sunlight so that the vrater remains on the vines 
as short a time as possible. 

Thrips, another small insect, is sometimes troublesome but 
not often and is now easily controlled by applications of nicotine. 
Much care must be taken in the application of nicotine late 
in the season, otherwise the fruit will be injured. 

The only fungous disease of the grape troublesome in the 
greenlK)usc is mildew. ^Mildew is usually brought on by a 
sudden change of temperature or by draughts in the grapery. 
Gardeners are of the opinion that cast winds, in particular, 
give unfavorable conditions for mildew and prefer to open the 
ventilators to the west. If taken in time, mildew is easily 
kept in check by preventing the conditions which favor it, 
and by dusting the vines in dry smishine with sulfur. 



CHAPTER XII 
GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 

In common with other cultivated fruits, grapes are at the 
mercy of numerous insect and fungous pests unless man inter- 
venes with remedial or preventive treatment. Happily for 
viticulture, knowledge of the pests of the vine has made such 
advancement in recent years that practically all are now con- 
trolled by remedial or preventive measures. Possibly no field 
of agriculture has had greater need, or received greater aid from 
science in the study and control of insects and diseases than 
grape-growing. A separate treatise would be required to treat 
the pathological troubles of the grape fully ; only such details 
of the life histories of the several pests to be discussed as are 
essential to a proper understanding of the control of the para- 
sites can be given here. 

Insect Pests 

Insects troubling the grapes are numerous, at least 200 hav- 
ing been described in America, most of which have their habitat 
on the wild prototypes of the cultivated vines of this continent. 
For this reason, with a few exceptions, the insect pests of the 
grape in America are widely distributed, abundant, and, there- 
fore, often very destructive to vineyards unless vigorously 
combated. The many pestiferous species vary greatly in 
importance, depending on locality, weather and the variety. 
Phylloxera, however, the country over, is most common and 
deserves first attention. 

204 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 



205 



PIn/llu.rerd. 

This minute siu-kiiif:; insect (Phylloxera mfttatriv), injures 
the p;rape by feediiif; on its roots. Decay usually follows its 
work on the roots and is often more injurious than the harm 
done directly by the parasite. This decay is always much 
more serious on European vines than on those of our native 
species. The phylloxera is a native of the United States east 
of the Rocky Mountains, from whence it was introduced into 
France and from France into California, where it causes much 
greater damajje than elsewhere in the I'nited States. Wherever 
the pest is found, it is more injurious in heavy than in sandy 
soils. In fact, in very sandy soils the vines are often sufficiently 
resistant to be prac- 
tically immune. 

The life history of 
the phylloxera is very 
complex where the dif- 
ferent forms of the in- 
sect appear and need 
not be entered into in 
detail here. East of the 
Rockies, the most evi- 
dent indication of the 
presence of the pest is 
great numbers of leaf- 
galls on the under side 
of the leaves of the 
grape as shown in Fig. 
36. These galls, how- 
ever, are seldom to be seen in California and are not present 
on Concords and some other varieties in the East. The winter 
egg may be taken as the beginning of the life cycle of the 
phylloxera. From a single winter egg a colony may arise, the 




Fig. 36. Leaf-galls of the phylloxera. 



206 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

first insect after hatching making its way to the leaves where 
it becomes a gall-maker and gives rise to a new generation of 
egg-laying root-feeders. On varieties and in regions where • 
the gall form is not found, the insect probably goes directly 
from the winter egg to the roots. Once the pest is established 
on the roots, generation follows generation throughout the 
growing period of the vines, as many as seven or eight occurring 
in one season. 

From midsummer until the close of the growing season, some 
of the eggs deposited by the root-feeders develop into nymphs 
which acquire wings and emerge from the soil to form new 
colonies from eggs deposited on the under side of the leaf. 
An individual insect deposits from three to six eggs of two sizes, 
from the larger of which come the females and these, after 
fertilization, move to the rough bark of the vine and deposit 
the winter egg for the renewal of the cycle. 

Several methods of control have been employed in Europe 
and California, as treatment by carbon bisulfide injected in 
the soil ; flooding in vineyards that can be irrigated ; confining 
the vines to sandy soils ; and, most important, planting vines 
grafted on resistant stocks, there being great variation in im- 
munity of species of American grapes to phylloxera. The 
subject of stocks resistant to this pest has been discussed in 
Chapter IV and need not be taken up again. East of the 
Rockies, treatment is not necessary with American grapes. 

The grape root-worm. 

The grape root-worm is the most harmful of the insect 
pests of grapes in the grape-belt along the shores of Lake 
Erie in Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. This root-worm 
(Fig. 37) is the larva of a grayish-brown beetle (Fidia 
vificida), shown in Fig. 38. The worms feed at first on 
the rootlets and later on the bark of the larger roots 
of the vines so that the injured plants show roots de- 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 



207 





Fig. 37. The grape 
root-worm. 



Fig. .38. Root- 
worm beetle. 



void of rootlets and bark channeled by the pest. So plain 
is the work of the root-worm that the grower never need be 
at a loss as to the cause of vines injured by 
this pest. The worms feed during the latter 
part of the growing season, reaching full growth 
at this time. The next June 
they transform into pupse and in 
late June or early July emerge 
as adult beetles. 

The presence of the adult bee- 
tles is more easily detected on the foliage than is 
that of the larvae on the roots, for the feeding 
beetles ravenously devour the upper sides of the 
leaves, leaving chain-like markings, shown in 
Fig. 39, their destructiveness decreasing some- 
what after a few days 
from their first appear- 
ance. A fortnight after 
the beetles begin their 
attack on the foliage the 
female begins laying 
her eggs, to the number 
of 200, placing them 
under the rough bark 
of trunk and cane. 
These hatch in late 
July or August and 
the young grubs at 
once seek the roots. 

Two methods of con- 
trol have been devised : 
destruction of the bee- 
tles before thev lav ^ „„ , . . , , , , 

, . , , Fig. 39. Injuries caused by beetles of the 

their eggs; and de- grape root-worm. 




208 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

struction of the pupse while in the ground. When the beetles 
are present in large numbers, many of them may be destroyed 
by spraying with a mixture of cheap molasses and arsenate of 
lead, using molasses at the rate of two gallons to a hundred gal- 
lons of water and the arsenate of lead at the rate of six pounds. 
This should be followed by a second spraying a w^ek later, 
using bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) and three pounds of arsenate 
of lead. This second spray serves to repel migrating beetles 
from the vines. The molasses spray is ineffective unless sev- 
eral days of fair weather follow the spraying, as rain washes 
the material from the foliage. Bordeaux mixture is not easily 
affected by rain. In moderately infested vineyards, bordeaux 
mixture and arsenate are used instead of molasses and arsenate 
of lead, followed in about ten days with a second application 
of the same material. 

An effective method of reducing the number of beetles is 
the destruction of the pupse. This is best done by leaving a 
low ridge of earth under the vines at the last seasonal culti- 
vation to remain until most of the larvse have pupated, and 
then be leveled with a horse-hoe and later with a harrow. 
The horse-hoe and harrow crush many of the pupae and break 
the cells of others to the great destruction of the pest. This 
latter method of control is not adequate in itself and in bad 
infestations both should be used. When the infestation is 
only moderate, this latter method is not advised, owing to the 
lateness of the time of horse-hoeing. It is good horticultural 
practice to horse-hoe the latter part of May or early June. 
To wait for the pupal stage of the root-worm delays the work 
until numerous small roots start which would be destroyed by 
the horse-hoe. Spraying will control a moderate infestation. 

The gr ape-vine flea -beetle. 

In the warm days of May and June when the buds of grapes 
are swelling, a shining steel-blue beetle may often be found in 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 



209 



the vineyards of eastern America feeding on the tender buds 
of the grape. From its color the insect is often called the 
steely-beetle, and from its activity and habit of jumping 
it is known as the flea-beetle {Haltica chalybea). The 
vine is seldom seriously injured by this pest but many buds 
are destroyed, causing the loss of the fruit that should have 
developed from the buds. It is true that new buds often 
develop after the injury, but these, as a rule, 
produce only foliage. 

The life history of the flea-beetle is such 
that the pest is not hard to control, the chief 
steps in its development being as follows : 
The beetles deposit small orange-colored eggs, 
cylindrical in form, illustrated in Fig. 40, 
about the buds and in crevices of the bark 
of the canes in May or June. Most of these 
eggs are hatched by the middle of June. 
The larvse feed upon the foliage until about 
July first and then crawl to the ground in 
which they form cells and pupate. The latter 
part of July the adults emerge and seek wild 
vines upon which they feed, entering hiber- 
nation rather early in the fall. The beetles 
hibernate under leaves, in rubbish and in the shelter of the 
bark of trees and vines, but emerge in the warm days the 
following spring to seek vineyards. 

Two methods of control have been developed to keep this 
pest under. The vines should be sprayed with three pounds 
of arsenate of lead in fifty gallons of water when the larvse 
are feeding on the foliage ; or the beetles when feeding may 
be knocked into a pan containing a shallow layer of kerosene. 
The former is the cheaper and more effective method provided 
the grape-grower has the foresight to discover the larvse, since 
the larvae of this summer produce the beetles that will destroy 




Fig. 40. Egg3 
of grape-vine flea- 
beetle. 



210 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

the buds next spring. When the adults migrate from wild 
vines, or the larvse were not destroyed in the vineyard, collect- 
ing the adults is the only practical method. The destruction 
of wild vines near a vineyard helps to give immunity from this 
pest. 

The rose-chafer. 

The rose-chafer {Macrodactylus suhspinosus) , a long-legged 
beetle of a yellowish-brown color, about a third of an inch in 
length, often appears in vineyards in vast swarms toward the 
middle of June in northern states and about two weeks earlier 
in southern states east of the Rocky Mountains. Often they 
overrun gardens, orchards, vineyards and nurseries, and usually, 
after having done a vast amount of damage in the month of 
their devastating presence, the beetles disappear as suddenly 
as they came. Vineyards on or near sandy soils are most 
often infested, the larvse of the beetle seeming to live in consid- 
erable numbers only in these light soils. The chief damage 
to the grape is done to the blossom ; in fact the insects, after 
feeding on the blossoms during the blossoming period, usually 
migrate to blossoms of any one of several shrubs. The larvae 
feed on the roots of grasses, having particular liking for the 
roots of foxtail, timothy and blue-grass. 

Some knowledge of the life history of these beetles is essen- 
tial to effective control. The beetles emerge as adults in June 
and after feeding a short time begin to mate, although egg- 
laying does not take place until the insects have been out for 
a fortnight or more. The females burrow into the soil and 
deposit their eggs, seldom more than twenty-five in number, 
which begin to hatch in about ten days. The young larvse 
feed during the remainder of the summer on roots of grasses. 
They are seldom found deeper than six inches while feeding. 
but as cold weather approaches they burrow deeper to avoid 
sudden changes of temperature. The following spring they 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 211 

again come near the surface to feed. The grubs form cells 
from which the pupee emerge, as we have seen, about the middle 
of June, timing their appearance very closely to the blossoming 
of Concord grapes. 

The methods of control are three, namely : destruction of 
the larvae; cultivation to kill the pupse; and spraying to kill 
the beetles. Since the larvae feed on the roots of grasses in 
sandy soils, it is easy to locate the feeding ground of the pest 
and plant it to cultivated crops which destroy the grasses and 
therefore the larvae. The second method of destruction is 
similar, consisting of cultivation to kill the pupae. This is 
accomplished by thorough cultivation during the pupating 
stage to break the cells and crush the pupae, thus preventing 
the emergence of the beetles. The third method, however, 
is the most effective and consists of spraying the vineyard 
with a sweetened arsenical spray. The spraying should be 
done as soon as the beetles appear, using arsenate of lead six 
pounds, molasses one gallon and water one hundred gallons. 
It is often necessary to make a second application a week later. 
If rain occurs within thirty-six hours after spraying, the appli- 
cation should be repeated as soon as the weather clears. 

The grape leaf-hopper. 

From Canada to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific, wherever the grape is grown, the small leaf-hopper 
{Typhlocyha comes) infests the grape in greater or less numbers, 
feeding on the lower surface of the leaf. Grape-growers com- 
monly call these insects "thrips, " a name, however, which 
really belongs to a very different class of insects. The injury 
done by this pest varies greatly with the season and the locality, 
in some regions it being comparatively harmless and in others 
exceedingly destructive in seasons when it occurs in abundance. 
There is great variation also in individual vineyards, those 
near favorable hibernating places and early spring food plants 



212 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 




often being injured seriously season after season in succession. 

These leaf-hoppers obtain their food by piercing the epidermis 

on the under side of the leaf 
surface and sucking the 
sap, and add further injury 
by inserting their eggs un- 
derneath the skin of the 
leaf. The punctures greatly 
decrease the starch-produc- 
ing area of the leaf with 
the result that the vigor of 
the plant is lowered, and 
the quality of the fruit de- 
creased. 

The life history of the 
leaf-hopper is very well 
known. The eggs are de- 
posited in June or early 

July, and hatch from June 15 to July 10 in New York, the 

season being earlier or later as one goes south or north. The 

young leaf-hoppers are wing- 
less, the nymph stage, but 

reach the adult stage in late 

July and August, at which 

time many of them mate, and 

eggs are laid from which a 

second brood may develop, 

although usually only one 

full brood is produced in a 

season in the northern states. 

Figures 41 and 42 show the 

several life stages of the 

leaf-hopper. Insects which ^ .„ r,,, ^, ^ 

. , . T , Fig. 42. The fifth and the mature stages 

become adults m the latter of the grape leaf-hopper. (5:nlarged.) 



Fig. 41. First four stages of the grape 
leaf -hopper. (Enlarged.) 




GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 213 

part of July feed on the foliage until autuinu and then seek win- 
ter quarters, passing the winter in the adult stage under fallen 
leaves, in dead grass or other similar protection. The hibernat- 
ing place must be dry and for this reason sandy knolls are most 
favored by the insects. The adults emerge in the warm days of 
spring and then seek food first on the strawberry, then migrate 
to red and black raspberries or blackberries, if raspberries are not 
present. They remain upon these hosts until the grape leaves 
expand and then migrate to these to feed, lay their eggs and die. 
Three methods of control are in use to prevent the ravages 
of the leaf-hopper : avoiding the planting of raspberries near 
grapes ; spraying with contact insecticides ; and the destruc- 
tion of hibernating places. Since the leaf-hoppers feed espe- 
cially on the raspberry before the leaves of the grape have 
expanded in the spring, avoiding planting these two plants 
near each other is a very effective method of control. The 
contact spray must touch the body of the insect and must, 
therefore, be applied before the nymphs develop wings. The 
best spray is a half pint of Black Leaf 40 to a hundred gallons 
of water or bordeaux mixture. It is applied to the under side 
of the foliage by a trailing hose or by an automatic grape leaf- 
hopper spray devised by F. Z. Hartzell and described in bulletin 
344 of the New York Experiment Station. The destruction 
of hibernating places is almost as effective a method of control 
as spraying. All weeds and strong-stalked grasses which die 
in the fall and all rubbish in the vineyard should be destroyed. 
It is quite worth while, also, to burn leaves and rubbish in 
fence rows and waste places near infested vineyards in the 
autumn or early winter. Cover-crops which remain green 
during the winter do not harbor the leaf-hoppers. 

The graye-herry moth. 

This pest is widely distributed, attacking the grape wherever 
grown in North America. The insect feeds on all varieties 



214 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



but is especially destructive to grapes with tender skins and 
such as grow in compact bunches. Its work is detected usually 
in compact grape clusters where a number of berries are injured 
by a "worm." The "worm" is a dark-colored caterpillar, the 
larva of the grape-berry moth {Polychrosis viteana.) There 
, are two broods of this cater- 

pillar, the first of which feeds on 
the stems and external portions 
of the young berries, while the 
second attacks the berries. The 
loss to the fruit-grower is of two 
kinds, the loss of the fruit and the 
marring of clusters which entails 
the cost of picking out worthless 
berries. Figure 43 shows the work 
of the grape-berry moth. The 
damage is usually greatest near 
woodlands since the trees cause 
more snow to lodge in the adjoin- 
ing vineyards, this protection per- 
mitting a greater percentage of 
pupse to survive. 

The moth passes the winter in 
the pupal state on leaves under- 
neath the vine, emerging about 
the time grapes are blossoming. 
The sexes then mate and the eggs 
are laid on the stems, blossom clusters and newly set fruit. 
After reaching full growth, the caterpillars cut out a portion 
of the leaf from which they make a pupal case by means of 
silken threads, and here pupate for the second brood which 
emerges in late July and August. Eggs are laid at once and 
from these come the caterpillars which live entirely in the 
berry. The larvae leave the berries about the time the fruit is 




Fig. 43. A hTinch of grapes 
despoiled by the grape-berry moth 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 215 

ripe, form cocoons on the leaves and hibernate. The moths 
are small, brown in color, mottled with gray and so much the 
color of the grape cane that they can hardly be detected ^^ hen 
resting on the wood. 

The grape-berry moth is difficult to control but much can be 
done to curtail its ravages. Spraying after the fruit sets is the 
most effective preventive. Bordeaux mixture should be used 
(4-4-50) to which has been added one and one-half pounds 
of resin-fish-oil soap and three pounds arsenate of lead. A 
second application of the same spray is advisable in early 
August. In a small vineyard or with a slight infestation, it 
often pays to pick and destroy the berries infested by the 
spring brood. Plowing infested vineyards in late fall or early 
spring to bury all leaves prevents the emergence of many of 
the moths. To be effective, this practice must cover the 
leaves deeply directly under the vines and this earth must 
remain until after the time for the adults to emerge. Plow- 
ing under leaves is not as effective on sandy as on heavy soils, 
since sandy soils do not become sufficiently compact to prevent 
the escape of moths. 

Insect pests of minor importance. 

Of the 200 species of insects that feed more or less on the 
grape, entomologists mention several others than those described 
that in occasional years or localities become abundant and 
cause serious injury. Thus, there are several species of cut- 
worms which sometimes feed on the expanding buds of the 
young leaves of grapes. The damage of these cut-worms 
to the grape is greater in California than in other parts of the 
United States, but nevertheless they occasionally feed on the 
vines in eastern regions to the detriment of the crop. The 
most satisfactory control measure for cut-worms is the appli- 
cation of poisoned bait placed on the ground at the base of the 
vines. 



216 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-OROWINO 

In California there is a grape root-worm {Adoxus obscurus) 
quite distinct from the grape root-worm of eastern America, 
which injures both the roots and the parts of the vine above 
ground. As in the eastern species, the best evidence of infesta- 
tion of this pest is the narrow chain-like strips eaten out of the 
leaves, though the insect also gouges out part of the petioles, 
pedicels, berries and shoots and works under ground, eating 
the rootlets and bark of tlie larger roots. Infested vines 
show a stunted condition, the canes fail to attain a normal 
growth and often the vines are killed outright. As in the 
case of the eastern species, this root-worm is the larva of a 
beetle, the life history of the insect not being greatly different 
from that of the eastern beetle. Two methods of control are 
fairly effective : the adult beetles may be jarred from the 
vine and captured on a screen when the infestation is restricted 
to small areas ; or the beetles may be poisoned with the arseni- 
cal spray recommended for the eastern species. Both jarring and 
spraying often have to be repeated as new infestations appear. 

The grape leaf-folder (Desniia fiinemJis) is another insect 
pest of vineyards in California, and occasionally in the East, 
which works, however, only in restricted localities and in occa- 
sional years. In California, the insects are detected in a vine- 
yard by the characteristic rolling of the leaves in which a tube 
rather less than the diameter of a lead pencil is formed for 
the home of the larva?. The lar% te feed on the free edge of the 
leaf in the interior of the roll and are thus protected by the 
outer layers. In the East the caterpillar merely folds the 
edges of the leaves together. This leaf-folder hibernates as 
a chrysalis, coming forth in early spring to lay eggs on the 
vine shortly after the foliage has appeared. There are two 
broods in California and the northern states and three broods 
in the southern states. The leaf-folder is easily disposed of 
by spraying with an arsenical spray just after the eggs hatch 
and before the larva is protected by its roll of lea\'es. 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 217 

Still another pest found throughout the United States and 
especially destructive in California is the hawk-moth (Pholus 
achemon), the larvae of which occasionally do serious damage 
to small areas of vines. These larvae are very similar to the 
large worms, familiar to all, which attack the tomato and 
tobacco. The insect hibernates in the pupal state in the 
ground where it may be distinguished as a large cylindrical 
object of dark brown color. The moths emerge about the 
middle of May and deposit their eggs on the leaves of the grape, 
upon which the larvse when hatched immediately begin to 
feed. There are several species of these hawk-moths, all of 
which have essentially the same life history. It is not a diffi- 
cult pest to control since the larvae are easily killed with arseni- 
cal sprays ; or if there are but occasional specimens they may 
be picked by hand. There are several species of the hawk- 
moth which attack the grape but this is the common one. 

In eastern grape-growing regions, there are two other destruc- 
tive grape insects widely distributed, but each noteworthy as 
pests only in the Appalachian region of West Virginia and 
neighboring states. One is the grape-curculio (Craponms 
incBqualis), not essentially different from the familiar curculio 
of the plum and cherry. This snout-beetle feeds freely on the 
upper surface of the leaves and the bark of fruit stems, and the 
female in laying eggs devours the tissues of the grapes in ex- 
cavating her egg chamber. The grape-curculio is effectively 
destroyed by spraying with an arsenical spray in the spring 
as the beetles appear on the vines and before egg-laying begins. 

Another insect pest of this region is the grape-vine root-borer 
(Memythrus polistiformis) closely allied to the peach-borer, 
known by all fruit-growers and the squash-vine borer known 
to the growers of vegetables. This borer is the lar\'a of a 
moth and is a whitish grub with a brown head which, when 
fully grown, is about one and three-quarters inches in length. 
The body is slender, distinctly segmented and has a sparse 



218 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

covering of short, stiff hairs. These larvse burrow into the 
grape-root, at first confining themselves to the softer portions 
of the bark, often encircling the root several times, but later 
bore with the grain of the wood and by the end of the season so 
destroy the roots as to leave only the thin membrane of the 
outer bark intact. This pest is difficult to deal with. The 
borers cannot be removed by "worming" as in the peach, 
and neither can the roots be protected by sprays or washes. 
No one variety of the grape seems more immune than another. 
Thorough cultivation in the months of June and July to destroy 
the insects while in their cocoons at the surface of the ground 
seems to be the only method of stopping their ravages, and this 
is not always effective. 

Fungous Diseases of the Grape 

The grape is ravaged by four or five fungous diseases in 
America, unless the utmost vigilance is exercised to keep the 
parasites in check. Happily for commercial viticulture, there 
are regions, as we have seen in the description of grape regions 
in Chapter I, so fortunate in their freedom from fungous diseases 
that there is little uncertainty in grape-growing and but small 
expense in controlling diseases. Also modern science has 
discovered the life history of all the important diseases and 
devised fairly effective means of combating them. 

All of the fungous parasites of the grape in America are in- 
digenous, having long subsisted on wild vines. They are, there- 
fore, all widely distributed, and as cultivation has presented 
to them great numbers of grape plants in continuous areas, 
the diseases have increased rapidly in intensity, at times have 
swept like wildfire through grape regions devastating and 
utterly ruining great areas of vines. Means, however, are now 
at hand in remedial and preventive treatment, which, while 
because of cost may not permit the grapes to be grown profit- 




Plate XVII. - Empire State (X|). 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 



219 



ably in all parts of America, do permit their culture for home 
use in practically all agricultural districts in the country. 

Black-rot. 

This is the most widely distributed and the most destructive 
fungous disease of the grape in the region east of the Rocky 




Fig. 44. Work of black-rot of the grape. 

Mountains. Fortunately, it is unknown on the Pacific coast. 
The disease is caused by a parasitic fungus {Gidgnardia Bid- 
wellii) which gains entrance to the grape plant by means of 
minute spores distributed chiefly by wind and rain. Black- 
rot passes the winter in mummied grapes, on dead tendrils 
or on small, dead areas on the canes. In the spring, the fungus 
spreads from these spots to the leaves and forms brown leaf 
spots about a fourth of an inch in diameter, or oblong, black 
spots on the shoots, leaves, petioles and tendrils. Later the 
disease spreads to the fruits, not usually attracting attention 



220 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

until the berries are at least half grown. Soon after the ravages 
of the fungus become apparent on the berries, the fruits turn 
black, shrivel and become covered with minute black pustules 
which contain the sumn^er-spores. Figure 44 shows the 
work of black-rot. In the winter and spring, another form 
called the winter- or resting-spore is produced upon these old, 
shriveled, mummied berries, and these carry the disease over 
from one season to another. 

Since the disease is carried through the winter in mummied 
fruits and diseased w^ood, the desirability of destroying these 
mummied grapes and the leaves and prunings of infected vines 
as soon as possible is apparent. This treatment, however, 
is not sufficient, and the disease can be effectually controlled 
only by thorough spraying with bordeaux mixture (4-4-50). 
The first application should be made just before the grape 
blossoms ; the second, shortly after blossoming. The amount 
of material applied matters less than evenness in distribution 
and fineness of the spray as applied. In rainy seasons, perhaps 
a third or a fourth application should be made in regions where 
the disease is serious ; the third is made when the berries are 
the size of a pea ; the fourth, as the berries become large enough 
to touch each other. 

Doicny-viUc^riv. 

Downy-mildew (P'a.fmopara viticola) rivals black-rot for 
first place among fungous diseases of the grape. It is found 
in all grape regions east of the Rocky ]\Iountains but does most 
harm in northern localities. Like black-rot, downy-mildew 
attacks all the tender growing parts of the vine, but is chiefly 
found on the foliage and is usually less destructive than black- 
rot. As first seen on the foliage, the work of the fungus appears 
as greenish-yeHow, irregular spots upon the upper surface which 
later become reddish-brown. At the same time on the under 
surface of the leaf, a thin, white dowmy growth puts forth. 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 



221 



The spores of the fungus are produced on this downy growth, 
and under favorable conditions are distributed by wind and 
water to all tender parts of the vine, where they germinate 
and begin their work of destruction. The fruit is attacked 
when partly grown, as shown in Fig. 45, becoming covered 




Fig. 45. Grapes attacked by downy-mildew. 



with the gray down of the fungus, the "gray-rot" of the 
grape-grower. If the berries escape the disease until half 
grown, the fungus causes a brownish-purple spot that soon 
covers the whole grape, giving the disease at this stage the 
name of "brown-rot." Besides the summer-spores, another 
form of reproductive bodies is produced in the winter to 
carry the fungus through the resting period. 

Downy-mildew, like black-rot, spreads most rapidly and 



222 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

does most injury in hot, wet weather. As with practically all 
diseases of the grape, much can be accomplished in the way of 
control of the disease by destroying infested leaves, shoots 
and berries which contain the winter spores, but these sanitary 
measures are not sufficiently effective and vineyards must be 
sprayed as recommended for black-rot, except that the first 
application should be made before the blossom-buds appear. 

Poivde ry-mildew. 

Less troublesome than downy-mildew in the East, powdery- 
mildew {Uncinula necator), unless checked, is capable of destroy- 
ing the entire crop of European grapes on the Pacific slope. 
In the East it sometimes causes great loss on the several varieties 
known as "Rogers hybrids" and, curiously enough, is often 
a rather serious disease of the Concord. The disease is caused 
by a superficial fungus which passes the winter on fallen leaves 
and also on the canes. The spores begin to germinate a few 
weeks after the grape blossoms, but the disease is not often 
found until the grapes are nearly half grown. The fine white 
filaments of the fungus, which constitute the vegetative por- 
tion of the parasite, then attack the leaves, shoots and fruit, 
sending up short irregular branches on which great numbers 
of spores are borne. These give the upper surface of the leaf 
a gray, powdery appearance, hence the name. Eventually 
the diseased leaves become light brown and if the disease is 
severe, soon fall. Infected berries take on a gray, scurfy 
appearance, speckled with brown, are checked in growth and 
often burst on one side, exposing the seeds. The berries, how- 
ever, do not become soft and shrunken as when attacked by 
the downy-mildew. The disease passes the winter in resting- 
spores produced late in the growing season. Powdery-mildew 
differs from other fungous diseases of the grape in being more 
prevalent in hot, dry seasons than in cold, wet ones. 

In eastern America powdery-mildew is controlled by the 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 223 

treatment recommended for black-rot. When black-rot is 
not prevalent, two sprays with bordeaux mixture are recom- 
mended ; the first in early July and the second about two weeks 
later. On the Pacific coast, however, powdery-mildew or 
"oidium" as it is often called there, the name coming from 
Europe, is more cheaply and more successfully combated by 
dusting with flowers of sulfur. Dusting is often done by hand 
or with perforated cans but this is wasteful and uncertain, and 
any one of several sulfur-sprayers may be used which does the 
work better. 

Anthracnose. 

Another widespread disease is anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampe- 
liniim), called "birds-eye-rot" because of the peculiar spots 
produced on the affected fruits, which attacks leaves, shoots 
and fruits of the vine. It first appears on the leaves in small, 
irregular, dark brown sunken spots with a dark margin. Later 
it appears on the fruits, having much the same appearance 
though the spots are usually larger and more sunken, the disease 
being most characteristic on the fruit, however. Frequently 
two or more spots unite and so cover the greater part of the 
berry. The fruits become hard, more or less wrinkled, and the 
diseased area often ruptures, exposing the seed, much as with 
powdery-mildew. The spores of the fungus are produced 
in great numbers on diseased areas during the growing season 
and are borne on thread-like filaments which live through- 
out the winter in the tissues of the vine and are ready for 
new growth in the spring. Winter-spores have not yet been 
discovered. 

Anthracnose is widely distributed in eastern America but 
seldom causes great or general loss, most of the commercial 
grapes being relatively immune to the disease. A few sorts 
rather commonly grown in home ^'ineyards, as Diamond, 
Brighton and Agawam, suffer most from anthracnose. Spray- 



224 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ing with bordeaux mixture, as recommended for black-rot, 
is usually sufficient to keep the disease in check. 

Dead-arm disease. 

A troublesome disease of recent appearance is now doing 
considerable damage in the Chautauqua grape-belt along the 
shores of Lake Erie, being most common on the Concord. From 
the fact that it is usually found on one arm of the vine it is 
called "dead-arm disease" {Cryptosporella viticola.) The dis- 
ease is caused by a fungus which passes the winter in small, 
black fruiting bodies in the dead parts of the vine. Early 
in the spring the fungus spreads by means of spores to the young 
shoots and later in the season attacks mature berries, producing 
small, black, oblong spots of black-rot. Sooner or later, if 
the diseased shoot is not cut off, the fungus spreads to the arms 
or trunk of the vine, producing a slow, dry rot which eventually 
kills the affected part. Fortunately, the presence of the disease 
is quickly detected by small yellowish leaves, much crimped 
about the margin. 

The fungus is easily controlled by marking the diseased arms 
when the first symptoms appear and cutting thege off at prun- 
ing time. If the vine is much mutilated by such pruning, 
usually suckers can be brought up from beneath the surface 
of the ground to renew the vine. The applications of bordeaux 
mixture recommended for black-rot are valuable in pre^•enting 
the dead-arm disease. The disease is largely prevented by 
renewing the old wood of the vine as soon as the trunk begins 
to show a gnarled appearance. 

Shelling. 

In eastern America, especially' in the Chautauqua grape- 
belt, grape-growers not infrequently lose a large part of the 
crop by the premature falling of the grapes from the stems. 
The trouble is an ancient one and is designated as "shelling" 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 225 

or "rattling." This premature dropping usually begins at 
the end of a cluster, and clusters farthest from the trunk are 
earliest affected. When vineyards suffer badly from this 
shelling, the vines often take on a sickly appearance, the foliage 
falling oft' in color and the outer margins of the leaves drying 
up more or less. The fallen fruit has an insipid taste and is, 
of course, worthless even if it could be 'harvested. 

The cause of the trouble is not known. Grapes may "rattle" 
on high land or low land, on poor soil or rich soil, on heav^' or 
light soil. A vineyard may be affected one year and not the 
next. Grape-growers usually attribute the trouble to faulty 
nutrition, but applications of fertilizers have not proved a 
preventive. Old and well-established vineyards seem freer 
from the trouble than new and poorly established plantings. 
The most reasonable theory as to the cause of shelling is that 
it comes from faulty nutrition of the vine, but the conditions 
so affecting the nutrition are not yet satisfactorily determined. 

Diseases of minor importance. 

Ripe-rot or bitter-rot (Glomerella rujomacidans) is a disease 
due to the same fungus causing the bitter-rot of the apple. 
As the name indicates, the disease usually appears on the fruit 
at ripening time and under favorable conditions continues 
after the grapes are picked. It may also attack the leaves and 
stems. The first indication of the fungus is the appearance of 
reddish-brown spots which spread and eventually cover the 
whole fruit. The berries do not shrivel, but the rotted surface 
becomes dotted with pustules in which the spores are borne. 
It is hard to tell how much damage this disease does, but it 
is not usually great and the late applications of bordeaux mix- 
ture for black-rot or powdery-mildew are very effective in 
controlling it. 

Crown-gall, now known to be a bacterial disease which causes 
knots or galls on the roots of various wild and cultivated plants, 

Q 



226 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

sometimes attacks grape roots or even the vines above ground. 
Occasionally, the disease is rather serious, but it is not often 
to be reckoned with in the vineyard regions of America. I'ungi- 
cides are useless in combating the disease and all that can 
be done is to exercise great care in planting infected stock. 
It is doubtful whether crown-gall ever seriously injures vines in 
northern regions, although it may occasionally do so in the South. 

In California there is a somewhat mysterious disease known 
as "Anaheim disease," because of its having first made its 
appearance in the vicinity of Anaheim. As near as can be 
learned, the disease first appeared in 1884 and then spread 
rapidly from forty to fifty miles from the point where it began 
its ravages, causing direct and indirect loss of many millions 
of dollars, and leading to the abandonment of grape-growing 
in some parts of southern California. Fortunately, in recent 
years the Anaheim disease is less aggressive but still does more 
or less damage. The nature and the treatment of this disease 
are not as yet fully determined, although several experimenters 
are studying the trouble. Californians whose vineyards suffer 
from this disease should apply to the experiment station at 
Berkeley for the latest information in regard to it. 

Coulure is another trouble of the vine in California of which 
little is yet known, either as to cause or treatment. The term 
signifies the failure of the fruit to set or to remain on the clusters. 
The trouble occurs in varying degrees from the loss of a few 
berries to the complete shelling of the fruit from the stem. It 
is worse in some localities than others and in some varieties 
than others. Various causes have been assigned to the disease, 
chief of which, and most probable, are unfavorable climatic 
conditions. 

Control of Insects and Diseases 

From the number of insects and diseases found on the grape, 
it would seem that, literally, "pestilence walketh in darkness 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 227 

and destruction wasteth at noonday" in the vineyards of the 
country. But not many of the ills that grape-flesh is heir 
to are ever found in one region, and the vineyard is seldom 
attacked by many diseases or insects in a single season. There 
was a time, as we have said before, when grape-growers were 
so beset by pests which they could not control, that viticulture 
was one of the most uncertain fields in agriculture. But one 
brilliant discovery after another has brought the pests of the 
grape under the hand of man until now there are but few that 
need cause much expense in treatment or worry as to the out- 
come. 

Plants cannot be attacked by diseases unless infection is 
permitted. It follows that by proper sanitation most of the 
insect pests of the vine can be kept out of the vineyard. 

Vineyard sanitation. 

By changing or modifying environment, immunity can be 
secured from many of the pests of the grape and damage may 
be reduced with most if not all. Cultivation, as has been noted 
under several insect pests and one or two of the diseases of 
the grape, is an effective method of eliminating grape pests. 
In the case of insects, it destroys the insects themselves and 
the hibernating places as well. The vineyard should never 
be kept in sod, but always under thorough and frequent culti- 
vation. Vineyard sanitation is greatly improved, also, if 
cover-crops which remain green during the winter are planted 
after the last cultivation. Cultivation should usually be pre- 
ceded by deep plowing in the fall or spring to turn under fallen 
leaves and weeds or grass in which hibernating insects may 
pass the winter. 

The surroundings of the vineyard should be looked after. 
Fence-rows and waste lands which cannot be cultivated may 
often be burned over to destroy the hibernating places of grape 
insects. As a rule, it is unwise to plant the bramble berries 



228 MANUAL OF AMERICAX GRAPE-GROWING 

or even strawberries in vineyards, or adjoining vineyards, sinee 
these plants afford hibernating places and food plants for 
some of the grape insects, especially the destructive leaf- 
hopper. Lastly, precaution should be taken by destroying all 
wild grape-vines near vineyards, as these frequently harbor in- 
sects and diseases, the flea-beetle finding the wild grape-vine 
almost a necessity to its existence. 

Spraying. 

Definite rules cannot be laid down for spraying vineyards 
the country over. The literature on this subject is plentiful 
in any state in which grapes are largely grown, within the reach 
of the grape-grower, and is not difficult to understand once 
it is in hand. Every grape-grower should secure and study 
the publications of the state experiment stations having to 
do with the control of insects and diseases. 

The number of applications and the sprays to be used vary 
greatly in different parts of America. On the Pacific slope the 
only application yearly required in most vineyard regions is 
dusting with flowers of sulfur for powdery-mildew. Several 
other pests may, however, from year to year, or in one locality 
or another, require special treatment. In the grape regions 
of New York, many grape-growers do not spray at all, but 
these are usually slovens or procrastinators whose profits 
are small and uncertain. In the grape regions of the north- 
eastern states, orderly vineyardists spray at least once with 
bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) in which is put three pounds of ar- 
senate of lead, no matter how few insects and fungi are present. 
This treatment is given soon after the blossoms fall. In more 
southern regions it may be necessary to make a similar treat- 
ment soon after the first leaves appear, again after the blos- 
soms fall and every two weeks thereafter until the grapes 
begin to turn in color, making as many as four, five or even 
six applications in all. To these regular applications of bor- 




Plate XVIII. — Herbert (X f). 



GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 229 

deaux mixture and arsenate of lead, contact insecticides, as 
some of the nicotine preparations, may have to be added ; or, 
for special purposes as specified in discussing the several pests, 
cheap molasses is added. It is doubtful, however, whether 
the grape can be grown with commercial success where insects 
and fungi prevail and are so pestiferous as to require annually 
more than two or three applications of spraying mixtures. 



CHAPTER Xni 
MARKETING THE CROPS AND VINEYARD RETURNS 

Viticulture, as all divisions of agriculture, is made up of 
two quite distinct phases of activity : growing the crop and 
marketing the crop. The subjects to be treated in this and 
the next chapter belong rather more to marketing than to 
cultural activities. Treated in detail, these operations con- 
stitute matter sufficient for a separate treatise, and only an 
outline of present practices is in place in a text such as this 
devoted to the culture of the fruit. The several operations 
to be discussed are picking, packing, storing, shipping and 
marketing. 

Harvesting in the East and North 

As the consummation of the care of the vine, the in-gathering 
of the crop is celebrated in all European countries with re- 
joicings in song, dance and mirth. In America the vintage is 
less of an event than in Europe, but it is more picturesque and 
diverting than the harvest of most other crops. It is work in 
which youth and old age, as well as those in the prime of life 
in both sexes, can take part and is reputed as a most healthful 
occupation. For these reasons, the grape harvest in America, 
as in Europe, has somewhat the air of a holiday, so that workers 
are usually readily found for the several operations of harvest- 
ing. Laborers come as grapes begin to ripen from near-by 
cities and towns and neighboring country-sides in such numbers 
that the care of the crop is speedily accomplished. 

230 



MARKETING THE CROPS 231 



Pickers. 



As a rule, pickers are hired by tlie piece rather than by the 
day, experience having demonstrated that so paid they do more 
and better work. There is usually much diversity in race, 
age and condition of life of pickers so that harmonious and 
efficient work is scarcely possible without a competent foreman 
in charge who must often be assisted by a sub-foreman. 
Efficient supervision doubles the picking capacity of a gang of 
workers, and, moreover, is necessary to see that the fruit is 
picked and packed with proper care. In hiring pickers, it is 
usually stipulated that a part of the pay is to be reserved until 
the close of the season ; otherwise those disposed to have a 
holiday leave when the weather becomes unpleasant or seek 
greener pastures when the grapes become scarce. 

Time to jnck. 

Unlike some fruits, grapes must not be picked until they are 
fully ripe, as unripe grapes do not mature after picking. Grapes 
not matured lack the necessary percentage of sugar and solids 
to keep well and have not developed their full flavor. Many 
growers make the mistake of sending grapes to the market 
before fully ripe, a mistake easily made with some varieties 
because they acquire full color before full maturity. Color, 
therefore, is not a good guide as to the time to pick. In the 
northern and eastern states, late varieties of grapes may be 
allowed to hang on the vines for some little time after maturity, 
the late autumn suns giving them a higher degree of sweetness 
and perfection. Some growers run the risks of light frosts to 
further maturity and to secure the added advantage of the 
removal of many leaves from the vines. Ripeness Is indicated 
by a combination of signs difficult to describe but easily learned 
by experience. These signs are : first, a characteristic color ; 
second, full development of flavor and aroma ; third, a softer 



232 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

texture of the pulp and a slight thickening of the juice so that 
it is more or less sticky ; fourth, the ends of the stems turn 
from green to brown ; fifth, the berries pull more readily from 
their stems; sixth, the seeds are free or more nearly free from 
the pulp and usually turn from green to brown. 

Picking appliances. 

But few appliances are needed in picking grapes. Shears 
are a necessity. These are of special make and can be bought 
from dealers in horticultural supplies, costing from 75 cents to 
$1. Some growers, after picking, pack the fruit in the field 
in the receptacles in which it is to go to market. The greater 
number, however, pick in trays which are taken to the packing- 
house and allowed to stand until the fruit is wilted before 
packing for shipment. Trays may be of several sizes and 
shapes, but are usually shallow flats holding from twenty-five 
to thirty-five pounds. The picked fruit is taken from the vine- 
yard to the packing-shed in a wagon with flexible springs to 
prevent jarring and jolting. Large growers usually have 
specially built one-horse platform wagons, the front wheels of 
which pass under the platform. 

Picking accounts. 

It is no small matter to keep a picking account with pickers. 
Business-like growers use one of several kinds of tickets or tags 
in keeping accounts. Probably the most common method is to 
give a ticket to the picker when the receptacle of grapes is 
delivered, the grower either keeping half of the original or a 
duplicate of it. Objections to ticket systems are that the 
pickers often lose the tickets, are irregular in returning them, 
or exchange them with other pickers. To obviate the dis- 
advantages of tickets, some growers use tags which bear the 
picker's name and are attached to his person. These tags 
have marginal numbers or divisions which are canceled b}' a 



MARKETING THE CROPS 233 

punch as pickers deliver the grapes. Still another method is 
to keep book accounts with each picker in which case payment 
is made by the pound, each receptacle being put on the scales 
as brought in from the field, credit being given for the number 
of pounds. It is the duty of those in charge to see that each 
picker finishes the row or the part of the row to which he is 
assigned, and that he does not wander over the vineyard in 
search of the best picking. 

Packing-houses and their appliances. 

The commercial grape-grower must have a house for packing 
and storing. Houses differ in design and fitting for almost 
every vineyard. Sometimes the house is a combination one 
for packing and storing. Often the packing-house is a half- 
way place between the vineyard and the shipping station, in 
which case it is an open shed or a lightly constructed building. 
In these field packing-houses there are usually no provisions for 
storing. The better types of combined houses are provided 
with a cellar for the storage of grapes, the first floor is used for 
packing, and the attic provides a place for the storage of baskets 
and crates. In all such houses provision must be made for 
thorough ventilation, especially for the storage cellar if the 
grapes are to be kept for any length of time. Properly ven- 
tilated, the temperature of the grape cellar can be kept as low as 
50° F. during September and October. The cellar floor in these 
houses is usually of dirt better to regulate the moisture-content 
of the room. Often the first floor is divided into two rooms, 
one to be used for packing and the other as a shipping room. 
A good combination packing-and-storage-house of this type 
can be built for $1000 to $2000. Now that cold storage facilities 
can be secured in most grape-growing regions, and the rates of 
storage are becoming more reasonable, there is less need of 
storage-houses. 

Packing-houses are so simple in construction and may be so 



234 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



different in design that it is neither possible nor necessary to 
describe them in detail. A building that protects the workers 
from the elements and affords conveniences in packing serves 
the purpose. Such a packing-house, which is often located in 
the vineyard, should be well lighted, should be connected with 
the storage-room for baskets and should have advantages for 
delivering the packages from the storage-room to the packing- 
room and from the packing-room to the shipping-room. Its 
size will depend on the quantities of grapes to be packed. The 
house must be built so that it can be kept clean and sweet. 

Every packing-liouse, whatever the design, must be furnished 
with tables for holding the trays while the fruit is being packed. 
Usually these tables are so made that the picking trays are set 

before the packers 
on an inclined table. 
The packer transfers 
the grapes from the 
trays into the bas- 
kets in which the 
fruit is to be sold. 
The trays of grapes 
as they come from 
the field are set be- 
fore the packers 
either in front or a 
little to the right of 
the worker, who then 
packs the fruit into 
the basket from the left. As the baskets are filled, they are 
placed on a flat ledge or shelf in front of the packer and are 
then taken off by an attendant. Empty baskets are usually 
held in store on a higher shelf convenient to the packer and 
from time to time are replenished by the attendant. Figure 46 
shows a packing-table of the kind just described. Sometimes 




Packing grapes on a packing-table. 



MARKETING THE CROPS 235 

the packing-table Is circular and revolves, the packers sitting 
about the table. The baskets are held on the lap and the 
packer takes the grapes off the table which is turned as fresh 
fruit is brought in. This circular table is not in general use ; 
its only advantage is that it permits the packer to select from a 
larger quantity of fruit. 

Grading grapes. 

Grapes are more easily graded than most other fruits; for 
usually there are but two grades, firsts and culls. It is difficult 
to specify exactly what firsts are, since a number of factors 
must be considered which bring in play the judgment of the 
grader. At least, firsts must ha^•e the following qualities ; 
The bunches must be approximately uniform in size; there 
must be few or no berries missing from the stems ; the grapes 
must be fully ripe, of a uniform degree of ripeness and uniformly 
colored ; and the fruit must be free from insect and fungous 
injuries. It is easier to give specifications for culls, since all 
grapes not firsts are culls. 

In large vineyards, only good fruit or the best fruit is worth 
grading. It is more advisable to sell poor fruit by the ton with 
little or no grading. It follows, also, that the higher the price, 
the more special the market, and the more carefully the crop is 
picked, the more profitable it is to grade. The work of grading 
is done in the packing-shed when the fruit is transferred from 
the trays into the selling receptacles. A pair of slender scissors 
made for the purpose, to be purchased from dealers in horti- 
cultural supplies, is used to trim out diseased and crushed 
berries. The fruit must be permitted to wilt for a few hours, 
a half day or overnight, before it can be graded to advantage. 
In this work of grading, the greatest care should be taken to 
keep the fruit clean and fresh, to sort out broken bunches and 
to preserve the bloom. The less handling, the more finely 
finished is the product. 



236 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



Grape packages in eastern grape regions. 

Packages for grapes are less varied than those for any other 
fruit, selling receptacles in the states east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains being much the same for all regions. Dessert grapes are 
universally packed in gift packages — that is, packages which 
are given away when the fruit is sold — and this insures a 
clean dainty package. It seems imperative that a uniform 
style of package should be used the country over for the general 
market, but up until this time, although there have been both 
national and state laws passed, uniformity has not been secured. 
A national law is needed establishing standard commercial 
packages so that the grower may safely ship from one state to 
another without being a law-breaker. Such a package should 
be based on cubic-measure and not on weight as is often ad- 
vocated ; for grapes cannot be shipped without some loss from 

sampling in transit ; and there 
are also losses in weight by 
evaporation so that the 
grower, although trying to 
comply with the law, may 
become technically a law- 
breaker if the standard is 
based on weight. 

The most popular package 
for the grape in eastern 
grape regions is the Climax 
basket made in various styles 
and sizes. These are cheap,- 
easily packed and handled, nest well in shipment and are 
durable. Three sizes are commonest in use, the five-pound, the 
ten-pound and the twenty-pound basket. The five-pound 
basket usually holds only a little over four pounds ; the ten- 
pound about eight pounds; and the twenty-pound rather less 




Fig. 47. Climax baskets in two sizes. 



MARKETING THE CROPS 237 

than twenty pounds. Two sizes of Climax baskets are shown 
in Fig. 47. Jt is connnonly understood, however, that the 
packages are short in weight, and as grapes are retailed by the 
basket and not by the pound, short weight does not really 
deceive. 

These baskets are made of thin wood veneer with a 
light wood binding at the top and bottom. The cover is of 
wood and is usually fastened on with staples. The handle is 
either of wood or of wire. When well made, the baskets are 
firm and symmetrical, without splinters and are clean and 
white. Packages carried over from year to year become dingy 
in color, but the wood may be whitened by fumigating in the 
storage-room with sulfur. The baskets also l)ecome yellow 
and discolored if left in the sun and must, therefore, be stored 
in clean, dark, dry rooms. 

When grapes are sold by weight to manufacturers of wine or 
grape-juice, they are usually delivered in the picking trays 
which, if the market is near at hand," are always returned. 
If they are to be shipped far, they go to market in twenty-pound 
baskets or bushel baskets, although the latter are not regarded 
with favor by consumers. 

Packing. 

Grapes packed indoors, as has been said, are allowed to 
stand from a few to twenty-four hours after being picked to 
permit them to wilt. When thus wilted they are much more 
easily packed and do not shrink in transportation, so that the 
basket usually reaches the market well filled with fruit. P>ach 
bunch of grapes is placed separately in the basket after all un- 
marketable berries have been removed. The bunches are 
arranged in concentric tiers, the top layer being placed with 
special care. When the basket is filled, the grapes rise a little 
above the level of the basket, care being taken not to have the 
fruit project too much so that the grapes will be crushed when 



238 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

putting on the cover. In all this work, the berries are handled 
as little as possil)le, so as not to destroy the bloom. Care is 
taken, also, that the fruit is free from Spraying material and is 
otherwise clean and fresh. Much less pains need be taken when 
the grapes are packed in trays to be sold by weight, but even in 
this there must be method in filling the trays, otherwise there 
will be many open spaces and corners between bunches. 

Practically all commercial grape-growers now use labels on 
their packages. These not only add to the attractiveness of 
the packages, but are a guarantee of the contents, both as to 
name of the variety and the quality of the fruit. These labels 
are, also, a sign by which a grower's fruit may be distinguished 
and are, therefore, a valuable advertising medium. Some 
growers have registered their labels in the United States 
Patent Office in order to prevent others from using them. 
Obviously, it is not desirable or worth while to label a poor 
grade of grapes. 

Storing grapes. 

The commercial grape-grower now stores his grapes in cold 
storage warehouses if he keeps them any length of time after 
harvesting. There is no question but that keeping a part of 
the crop in artificially cooled houses is a great benefit to the 
grape-grower, since it prolongs the season for selling by some 
three or four months. Formerly, native grapes could be secured 
in general markets only until Thanksgiving time or thereabouts, 
but now American grapes are very generally offered for sale in 
January and February, while the European grapes from Cali- 
fornia are in the market nearly the year around. The grape- 
grower need make little or no preparation of his product in 
putting it in cold storage except to make sure that the product 
is first class in every respect. It would be a waste of money 
and effort to attempt to store any but clean, sound, well- 
matured, well-packed grapes. The grape-grower, however, 



MARKETING THE CROPS 239 

seldom need concern himself with storing, since the crop is 
usually stored by the buyers. 

Few small growers seem to have learned the art of keeping 
grapes in common storage. There are but few difficulties in 
keeping European grapes for several months after picking if 
they are stored under favorable conditions. Not all, but several 
of the native grapes may also be kept practically throughout the 
winter if proper precautions are taken. Among these varieties 
Catawba is the standard winter sort, but Diana, lona, Isabella, 
Rogers' hybrids and Vergennes, all rather commonly grown, 
may be kept by the small grower. 

To insure keeping, these nati\^e grapes must be handled most 
carefully. The fruit is picked a few days before it is dead ripe 
and the bunches placed in trays holding forty or fifty pounds. 
It is important that the temperature be reduced gradually so 
that there are no sudden changes. If the nights are cool, a 
valuable aid is to leave the grapes out-of-doors in crates the 
night after they are picked, placing them in a cool building or 
dry cellar early the next morning. The cellar or store-room 
should be well ventilated and should be such that the tem- 
perature is not variable, care being taken that the air in every 
part of the storage room is changed. Draughts, however, should 
be avoided or stems and berries will shrivel. If a temperature 
from 40° to 50° can be maintained, the varieties named may be 
kept until March or April. An expensive store-room is not 
necessary and ice to cool the room is not only unnecessary but 
undesirable. 

If the storage-room is too dry, the grapes wilt and lose flavor ; 
if, on the other hand, the atmosphere is too damp, the grapes 
mold. It is essential, therefore, to strike a medium between an 
atmosphere too dry and one too wet. It is possible that a light 
fumigation with sulfur or formaldehyde might help to keep down 
molds in these common storage grape-rooms, but as to the value 
of fumigation there seems to be no experimental evidence. 



240 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Grapes grown on clay lands are said to be firmer and to keep 
better than those grown on gravel or lighter soils. Some years 
ago there was an association in Ohio known as The Clay- 
Growers Association which handled only grapes grown on clay 
lands. The members of this association belie^ed that their 
grapes were much more desirable for storage than grapes from 
regions where the soil was lighter. 

Harvesting and Handling Muscadine Grapes 

The iNIuscadine grapes of the South Atlantic and Gulf 
states are unique in vine and fruit, are used for different pur- 
poses and go to different markets from the grapes of the North, 
so that they may be considered almost a distinct fruit. Not 
only are cultural requirements peculiar to this fruit, as we have 
seen, but the methods of harvesting and marketing are quite 
distinct. These are well set forth by Husmann and Bearing^ as 
follows : 

" Rotundifolia vines have been almost entirely grown on over- 
head arbors in the past, the fruit being made into wine, and 
under such conditions the general practice of jarring the grapes 
from the vines is perhaps the most practical method of harvest- 
ing. If the vines are trained to upright trellises or if the fruit 
is intended for shipping or table use the grapes should be picked 
by hand in order to be sound and clean. On account of the 
presence of leaves, twigs, etc., mixed with the grapes jarred 
from the vines, wine and grape-juice manufacturers will pay 5 
to 15 cents a bushel more for hand-picked grapes. The 
growers who make a practice of hand picking claim that the 
work can be done at practically no greater expense than is 
necessary to shake off and clean a crop, and the increased 
price obtained for the fruit will more than pay the difference. 

1 Husmann, Geo. C, and Bearing, Charles. The Muscadine Grapes, 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 273 : 33-36. 1913. 



MARKETING THE CROPS 241 

"A description of tlie harvesting of tlie Rotundifolia grapes liy 
the jarring method will be interesting to those not familiar with 
it. Poles are attached to sheets of canvas measuring by 12 
feet and having leather handles. A man is placed at each end 
of the sheets and four men with two sheets work together. The 
wide sides of the two sheets are brought close together under 
each vine, with the trunk of the vine in the middle. The vines 
are then jarred, the berries falling into the sheets. Those not 
caught by the sheets or that have fallen to the ground by the 
shaking of the trellis when the fruit of the adjoining vines was 
harvested, etc., and which are usually of the best quality, are 
picked by hand. The WTiters are informed that it costs 
approximately 15 cents a bushel to harvest the fruit on the 
ground and 12 cents to harvest that which falls on the sheets. 

"The fruit is put in boxes or barrels, and if the quantity is 
not large the leaves, sticks, etc., which become mixed with the 
fruit are removed by hand. If there is a considerable quantity 
of fruit some mechanical means, such as ordinary grain fan 
mills, are used to clean it. After cleaning, the fruit is hauled or 
shipped to the winery. In wineries with modern equipment 
theje are blowers which thoroughly clean the fruit. These are 
located near the end of the elevators that carry the fruit to the 
crusher. 

"A common and very objectionable practice followed in 
harvesting Rotundifolia grapes, especially by the jarring 
method, is that of gathering the fruit all at once, whereas there 
should be at least three periods of harvesting. When harvested 
at one time the best quality of fruit ripens, falls to the ground, 
and is lost before the harvest is commenced and the last part 
of the crop is thrashed from the vines in a half-ripe condition 
along with the ripe fruit. In this manner not only is the first 
and best fruit entirely lost, but the harvested fruit is inferior 
in quality, which necessarily results in a poor product from the 
entire vield." 



242 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Returns frnm Muscadine grapes. 

" Great variations occur in the yields from Rotundifolia vines. 
At times there are record-breaking yields and, again, small yields 
are reported, the small yields resulting from black-rot, coulure, 
wet weather, self-sterility, lack of cultivation, fertilization, 
lack of pruning, age of vines, and various other causes. In 
spite of this, Rotundifolia vines are said to be among the 
safest and most prolific of fruit-bearing plants. While in one 
of the largest Rotundifolia vineyards there has been only a 
partial crop during the last three years, owing to various 
causes, another grower reports a yield of 177 bushels of grapes 
from 4-year-old James vines, in addition to a bale of cotton 
to the acre. A Florida grower estimated his crop of white 
Rotundifolia and Thomas grapes for the season of 1911 at 
280 bushels to the acre. An average yield of 27 bushels an 
acre from 4-year-old vines, 100 bushels from 5-year-old vines, 
and 150 bushels to the acre when the vines are in full bearing 
should be obtained. 

"The prices paid for Rotimdifolia grapes depend on the 
season, the quality of fruit, and the market. In years when the 
crop is short better prices are usually paid than when there is a 
heavy crop. Aside from the grapes sold and shipped to wineries, 
grapes as a rule sell for more in the cities and larger towns than 
in smaller places, the local demand being somewhat in pro- 
portion to the population. In such localities fruit of good 
quality will bring a much better price than inferior fruit. 
Hand-picked fruit in half-bushel peach baskets or in berry 
boxes usually brings from SI to $2 per bushel. Grapes har- 
vested by jarring are usually sent to the wineries and bring 
an average of 75 cents per bushel of 60 pounds. The highest 
price paid for this quality of fruit was reached in 1910, when 
S2.25 per bushel (f.o.b. shipping point) was paid for white 
Rotundifolia. 



MARKETING THE CROPS 243 

"In many localities certain growers liave built up quite a 
reputation for themselves in choice, hand-picked fruit, which 
they ship to special customers in distant markets. For this 
purpose the James variety is usually grown because the berries 
adhere well and are of good size and flavor. Several growers 
ship as far north as New York and Boston, getting from $2.00 
to $2.50 gross per bushel crate. In shipping, tln-ee styles of 
carriers are used — the 2-l:-box strawberry crate, the 6-basket 
peach crate, and the 8-pound basket. ]\Iore attention should 
be given to this phase of the industry. The varieties best 
suited for shipping are the James, ]\Iemory, Flowers, and Mish. 

"In the fall of 1910 shipments of the James, Thomas, and 
Eden varieties were sent from the Rotundifolia experiment 
vineyard at Willard, N. C, to Washington D. C, part of the 
consignment being in strawberry boxes and the remainder in 
bushel baskets. No important difference could be noted in 
the two lots on their arrival in Washington. The James variety 
arrived in perfect condition in both packages ; of the Eden 
30 per cent and of the Thomas 35 per cent had shelled. More 
extensive experiments along this line are contemplated." 

Handling the Grape in California 

Grapes are grown in California for three purposes, wine, 
raisins and the table. The handling of the crop for raisins and 
wine is best taken up in a discussion of these products in the 
chapter on by-products of the grape, leaving only table grapes 
to be discussed at this place. 

The table-grape industry of the Pacific slope is dependent on 
the wide distribution of the product in eastern markets for a 
profitable sale of the crop, since production is so great that but 
a small part of the crop is consumed in the markets of the Pacific 
slope. The growers in this region, therefore, have special 
problems, chief of which are those of successful shipment over 



244 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

lonj? distances. California annually ships in the neighborhood 
of 10,000 carloads of table grapes, all of which must be handled 
within a period of about two months. As competition in- 
creases, it becomes more and more necessary to extend the 
area over which the fruit is to be sold ; to lengthen the marketing 
season through cold storage ; and for both of these purposes to 
devise new or to improve present methods of handling the fruit. 
The two requisites for the successful shipment of this great bulk 
of grapes are : The fruit must reach the markets in sound 
condition ; and it must have sufficient market-holding quality 
to remain sound for a considerable length of time after it arrives 
in the markets. Experience has thoroughly demonstrated to 
grape-growers in California that decay in grapes is largely 
dependent on the presence of injuries to the grape berries, to 
the pedicels or to the stems of the bunches. Methods of 
handling grapes, therefore, and the type of package used, 
must be such that the product is injured as little as possible. 

Careful handling. 

In the shipment of European grapes from California, it has 
been found that it pays to go to much extra trouble in handling 
the crop. The bunches are picked with care to avoid bruising 
or crushing berries, and as far as possible they are lifted only by 
the main stems. They are then laid with care in the picking 
trays which are filled only one layer deep. In moving the 
trays to the packing-house, they are handled carefully, the 
trays being moved only on wagons with springs. In sorting, 
special care is taken to remove all injured and unsound berries 
and not to injure others in the bunch, here again handling the 
clusters by the stems. In packing, the bunches are placed 
firmly in the baskets with care not to crush or bruise the stems 
or to injure the pedicels of the berries. A slight injury of 
either berry or pedicel permits the spores of the fungus causing 
decay to gain entrance into the fruit. 



MARKETING THE CROPS 245 

Shipping packages. 

The most common package for table-grapes in California is a 
square basket holding about five pounds. These baskets are 
placed for shipment in fours in crates. The bunches of some 
varieties may be too large for these small baskets, and these 
extra large-clustered grapes are packed in oblong baskets hold- 
ing in the neighborhood of eight pounds, two baskets filling a 
crate. No good filler seems yet to have been devised for 
packing grapes in California. The cork dust in which grapes 
from the ^Mediterranean are received is not available and a 
good substitute has not yet been found. Sawdust is sometimes 
used but has not proved satisfactory in holding the decay and 
the fruit absorbs disagreeable flavors from the wood. Occa- 
sionally, however, grapes from California are sent to eastern 
markets packed in dry redwood sawdust and these seem to 
come through in good condition and not to have absorbed a 
disagreeable flavor. Reports seem to indicate that this specially 
selected redwood sawdust is proving much better than the 
ordinary sawdust experimented with some years ago. 

Shipping. 

Considerable work has been done by the United States 
Department of Agriculture to determine how table-grapes could 
best be shipped from the far West and reach the eastern mar- 
kets in good condition. The crop is, of course, shipped in re- 
frigerator cars and much depends on the cooling of these cars 
and especially on the temperature at which the grapes are kept 
while in transit. To carry well over the 3000 miles of mountain 
and desert, heat and cold, the best type of refrigerator car 
must be used. It does not appear that the pre-cooling so ad- 
vantageous to citrous and other tree-fruits is worth the trouble 
and expense with table-grapes, as it does not seem to prevent 
decay. Cooling cannot be substituted for careful handling, 



246 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

which seems as yet the most necessary precaution to be taken in 
the preparation of these grapes for eastern shipment. 

Marketing 

Table-grapes from both eastern and western grape regions 
are now almost entirely shipped in carload lots. Since few 
grape-growers are prepared to load a car quickly with grapes, 
some kind of cooperation is required, or the crop must be 
handled by large buyers. Cooperative methods are becoming 
more and more popular, although a large part of the grape crop, 
both East and West, is now handled by buyers. 

There are several important advantages in selling through a 
cooperative organization. Thus, in selling cooperatively, the 
grapes are graded and packed in accordance with one standard ; 
more favorable transportation rates can be secured by a co- 
operative association ; and, most important of all, the output 
can be distributed to the grape markets of the country without 
the disastrous competition that attends individual marketing. 
In some of these organizations, also, supplies needed by the 
grape-grower in producing a crop are purchased more economi- 
cally than by individuals ; in particular, grape packages can 
be purchased better by an organization than by an individual. 

As the grape industry and competition grow in the different 
regions of the country, the necessity of forming marketing 
organizations becomes greater. Such organizations must be 
founded on the principles which many experiments have shown 
best govern fruit-marketing associations. It is not possible to 
discuss these principles at length, but the following fundamentals 
will suffice : 

An ideal cooperative association is one in which there are no 
profits nor dividends. Every member of the whole organized 
association is a producer. All of the product grown by a 
member is sold through the association. The association is 



MARKETING THE CROPS 247 

democratic, all members having an equal voice in its manage- 
ment and all sharing alike in its successes and failures. When 
profits arise of necessity, they are distributed to the members 
of the association in proportion to the amoimt of business each 
has done. The work of the organization is conducted at as 
near cost as possible and profits are declared only after expenses, 
depreciation, interest on capital for future operations are 
deducted. Thus it is seen that the plan of the organization is 
to give each member as nearly as possible the exact price his 
fruit has brought in the markets. 

Vineyard Returns 

Grape-growing as a business is -a comparatively new industry 
in America. It is true that the first attempts at growing this 
fruit were made to found an industry, but these were complete 
and dismal failures, and the start in growing grapes in America 
eventually came as a pleasing hobby. In evolving from a 
hobby into vineyard culture on a large scale, the business side 
of the industry long lagged. At present, with increasing com- 
petition, manifold uncertainties in vineyard conditions, and 
much unbusinesslike administration, interest in cultural opera- 
tions, with which pioneers in the industry were chiefly concerned, 
is eclipsed by the conception that grape-growing is a highly 
developed commercial enterprise requiring for success careful 
business management. 

Unfortunately there is nowhere a substantial body of figures 
from which growers can obtain a fair conception of what the 
outgo and income of average vineyards in grape regions are. 
The value of such data to investors or to those making an effort 
to keep track of the finances of their business is obvious, and 
an attempt is made here to put the reader in possession of 
figures that ought to be helpful. The data given, although 
scant and fragmentary, show fairly accurately the cost of 



248 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

producing grapes, selling prices and profits in the culture of 
this fruit in one of the great grape regions. 

The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is carrying 
on experiments to determine the outgo and income from vhie- 
yards in the Chautauqua grape-belt. The work is not yet 
finished, nor could the findings be published in detail before 
being sent out by the Station, but F. E. Gladwin, in charge of 
the work, has consented to set down summaries of costs and 
returns taken from vineyards at Fredonia, which will serve 
as a guide to planters of grapes in this region at least : 

First Year 

Interest on value of land @ $200 per acre . $12.00 

Preparation of land 8.00 

Cost of vines per acre 12.00 

Planting 4.00 

Cultivating 6.00 

Total expenditure for first year $42.00 

Second Year 

Interest on value of vinej^ard @ $225 per acre $13.50 

Cultivating, hand hoeing, etc 9.25 

Pruning 100 

Total expenditure for second year $23.75 

Third Year 

Interest on value of vineyard @ $250 per acre $15.00 

Pruning 2.50 

Posts (cost of) @ .10 240 24.00 

Setting and driving 6.50 

Wire and wiring, staples, etc 11.65 

Tying and twine 1-45 

Cultivating, plowing, harrowing 9.25 

Spraying 4.00 

No. baskets sold @ .16 per basket 500 . . . . $80.00 

Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand 10.00 

Picking @ .01 per basket 5.00 




Plate XIX. — lona (X|). 



MARKETING THE CROPS 249 

Packing @ .01 per basket $5.00 

Hauling .003 1.50 

Outgo for third year $95.85 

Income $80.00 

Fourth Year 

Interest on value of vinej'ard @ $300 per acre $18.00 

Pruning 2.50 

Tying 2.90 

Sprajang and materials 4.00 

Cultivating, plowing, harrowing, hand-hoeing and plowing back 

one furrow 9.25 

Trellis upkeep, driving posts, tightening wires, etc 2.50 

Pulling and poling out brush 1.69 

No. baskets sold® .16 per basket 1000 . . . $160.00 

Cost of baskets @ .$20 per thousand 20.00 

Picking @ .01 per basket 10.00 

Packing @ .01 per basket 10.00 

Hauling .003 3.00 

Outgo for fourth year $83.84 

Income $160.00 

Outgo for four years $245.44 

Income for four j^ears 240.00 

Estimates for Succeeding Years 

Gross income $12.5-200 

Outgo 75-85 



CHAPTER XIV 
GRAPE PRODUCTS 

Over-production, with the attendant losses caused by 
glutted markets, is a factor which, like frosts and freezes, is 
ever in the mind of the grape-grower. No season passes but 
that some of the grape regions of the country suffer from over- 
production. Not uncommonly the grape industry in a region 
is better off in a season when the crop is small and prices high,' 
than when the crop is large and prices low. In every part of 
the country where grapes are grown, over-production has been 
a great deterrent to viticulture ; this, in spite of the fact that 
grape-growers have availed themselves of the opportunity to 
manufacture products from this fruit. Thus, wine and raisins 
are made from the grape in California, and a large part of the 
harvest in the East goes into wine, champagne and grape-juice. 
But the growth of prohibition now threatens the wine and 
champagne industries of the country, in fact may be said to 
have driven them to the wall, making the need of new outlets 
in manufactured products a greater necessity. 

Under these conditions, grape-growers must seek in every 
way to enlarge the sale of the crop to manufacturers with the 
hope that thus, together with more perfect distribution of his 
commodities, the inroads made by prohibition on the industry 
may be offset and the over-production of table-grapes be 
better prevented. With this brief emphasis on the importance 
of manufactured products of the grape, we approach the dis- 

250 



GRAPE PRODUCTS '251 

cussion of the several possible outlets to over-production in 
this fruit. 

Wine 

The manufacture and use of wine in America, as has been 
intimated, is likely to cease through prohibition. Therefore, 
whatever may be said of this product of the grape is of less and 
less interest to grape-growers. However, a few years of grace 
probably remain for the making of wines in America, and since 
wine-making yet offers the greatest outlet for the grape crop, 
next to table-grapes, wine must be considered as a factor in the 
grape industry. 

Since the demand and price for grapes depend very largely on 
the kind of wine to be made, it is necessary to characterize the 
wines made in America. Wine, it should be said, is the product 
of alcoholic fermentation of the grape. Alcoholic fermentations 
made from other fruits are not, strictly speaking, wines. 
Natural wines are divided into three broad groups ; dry, sweet 
and sparkling wines. Dry wines are those in which sugar has 
been eliminated by fermentation ; sweet wines those in which 
sufficient sugar remains to give a sweet taste ; and sparkling 
wines are those which contain sufficient carbonic acid gas to 
give a pressure of several atmospheres in the bottle. The 
carbonic acid gas is produced in sparkling wines by fermenta- 
tion in the bottle of a dry wine. 

The color in these three classes of wine may be red or white, 
depending on whether or not the color is extracted from the 
skins in the process of fermentation. To make red wine, of 
course, the grapes to be fermented must have red coloring 
matter in skin or juice or both. Each of these groups of wine 
includes a very large number of kinds distinguished by the name 
of the region, the locality or the name of the vineyard in which 
a wine is made. Wines are still further distinguished according 
to the year of the vintage. 



252 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Wine-making. 

There are four distinct stages in the making of wine after 
the grapes are grown. The first is the harvesting of the grapes 
when they have reached the proper stage of maturity, which is 
known as "wine-making ripeness." This stage of ripeness is 
determined by means of a must-scale or saccharometer. The 
wine-maker squeezes the juice from a number of bunches of 
grapes into a receptacle into which he drops the must-scale, 
whereupon the sugar-content of the juice is indicated on the 
scale, determining whether the proper stage of ripeness has 
been reached. Suitable varieties of grapes having been grown, 
it is necessary that they be permitted to hang on the vine until 
the proper degree of ripeness is developed, after which they 
are delivered at the winery as free as possible from injury or 
decay. 

The second stage is the preparation of the grapes for fermen- 
tation. The grapes are weighed on arriving at the winery and 
are then conveyed either by hand or more often by a mechanical 
conveyor to the hopper or crusher. The ancient method of 
crushing, which still prevails in some parts of Europe, was to 
tramp the grapes with bare feet or wooden shoes. Tramping 
has been superseded by mechanical crushers which break the 
skin but do not crush the seeds. The best mechanical crushers 
consist of two-grooved revolving cylinders. As the grapes pass 
through the crusher, they fall into the stemmer, a machine 
which tears off the stems, discharging them at one end, while 
the seeds, skins, pulp and juice pass through the bottom to 
the presses usually on the floor below. There are several types 
of wine-presses, all of which, however, are modifications of 
screw, hydraulic or knuckle-joint power. In large wineries, the 
hydraulic press has almost driven out the other two forms of 
power and when great quantities of grapes must be handled 
a number of hydraulic presses are usually in operation. The 



GRAPE PRODUCTS 253 

grape pomace is built up into a "cheese" by the use of cloths 
and racks variously arranged. The "cheese" is then put under 
heavy pressure from which the juice or "must" is quickly ex- 
tracted. 

The third stage is fermentation. The "must" is carried 
from the press into open tanks or vats which hold from 500 to 
5000 gallons or even more. The yeast cells which cause 
fermentation may be introduced naturally on the skins of the 
grapes; or in many modern wineries the "must" is sterilized 
to rid it of undesirable micro-organisms and a "starter" of 
"wine-yeast" is added to start the fermentation. Yeast 
organisms attack the sugar and must, breaking it up into alco- 
hol and carbonic acid gas, the latter passing off as it is formed. 
When active fermentation ceases, the new wine is drawn from 
the pomace and is put into closed casks or tanks where it 
undergoes a secondary fermentation, much sediment settling 
at the bottom of the cask. To rid the new wine of this sediment, 
it must be drawn off into clean casks, an operation called 
"racking." The first racking usually takes place within a 
month or six weeks. A second racking is necessary at the end 
of the winter and a third is desirable in the summer or fall. 

The fourth stage is the aging of the wine. Before aging 
begins, however, the wine usually must be rendered perfectly 
clear and bright by "fining." The materials used in fining are 
isinglass, white of egg or gelatine. These, introduced into the 
wine, cause undissolved matters to precipitate. The wine is 
now ready for bottling or consumption. Most wines acquire a 
more desirable flavor through "aging," a slow oxidation in the 
bottles. 

Champagne. 

When champagne wines have gone through their first fermen- 
tation, they are racked off into casks to age until their quality 
can be ascertained, after which a blend of several different 



254 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

wines is made. This blend is called the "cuvee." The cuvee 
is bottled and a second fermentation starts. The bottles are 
now put in cool cellars, corded in horizontal layers with thin 
strips of wood between each layer of bottles. The champagne 
in this stage is said to be in "tirage." The carbonic acid gas 
generated at this second fermentation is confined in the bottles 
and absorbed by the wine. When the bottle is uncorked, the 
gas, seeking to escape, produces the sparkling effect desirable in 
sparkling wines. After the wine has been in tirage for one 
or two years, the bottles are placed in A-shaped racks, the neck 
of the bottle pointing downward so that the sediment formed 
during fermentation drops to the cork. To further the settling 
of the sediment, workmen turn or shake each bottle daily for a 
period of one to three months. The bottles are then taken to 
the finishing room, cork down and the wine is "disgorged." 
Disgorging is accomplished by freezing a small quantity of 
wine in the neck of the bottle containing the sediment, after 
which the cork is removed and with it the frozen sediment. The 
bottle is refilled, recorked, wired, capped, and the champagne 
is ready for shipment. 

The vintage. 

The wine-making season the world over Is known as the 
"vintage." The time at which the vintage begins depends, of 
course, on the region, the variety of grapes, the growing season 
and the location of the vineyard. Its duration, also, depends 
on these same factors. The season is usually lengthened by the 
fact that wine-makers require for their purposes a number of 
varieties of grapes which ripen at different times. Before or 
during the vintage, representatives of wine cellars usually make 
contracts for the number of tons of grapes required at a certain 
price a ton. 

The notion prevails that grapes for wine and grape-juice 
need not be first-class. This is far from the truth. To make 



GRAPE PRODUCTS 255 

good wine the grapes must be carefully harvested, transported 
with as little injury as possible and must be protected from dirt, 
mold and fermentation before reaching the winery. European 
vintagers maintain that grapes picked at sunrise produce the 
lightest and most limped wines and yield more juice. They 
say, also, that the grapes should not be gathered in the heat of 
the day because fermentation sets in at once. These niceties 
are not observed in America. 

Prices paid for ivine grapes. 

Supply and demand regulate the price paid for wine grapes. 
There is always demand for good wine grapes, although a poor 
product often goes begging for market. In the East, the highest 
prices are paid for the grapes used in making champagne. The 
champagne region of the East is confined to a few localities 
along Lake Erie and to western New York about Keuka Lake, 
where the industry is most largely developed. The varieties 
used in champagne-making in the East are Delaware, Catawba, 
Elvira, Dutchess, lona. Diamond and a few other sorts. Prices 
differ with the many conditions affecting the grape and cham- 
pagne industries, perhaps the average price for Catawba, the 
grape chiefly used in making champagne in this region, being 
from $40 to $50 a ton. Choicer grapes, as Delaware, lona 
and Dutchess, often sell from $75 to $100 a ton. Concords are 
sometimes utilized in making dry wines in the eastern states, 
$30 or $40 a ton being the average price. Ives and Norton 
are much used for red wines and sell for top prices. 

Wine-makers in the East are at a disadvantage in producing 
wines other than champagne, since the price paid on the Pacific 
slope for wine grapes is much lower. Grapes for sweet wine in 
California often sell as low as $6 or $7 a ton, the average price 
being $10 or $12. Grapes for dry wines, such as Zinfandel and 
Burger, bring on the Pacific coast from $10 to $1 2 a ton. Choice 
varieties of grapes in this region, such as Cabernet, Sauvignon, 



256 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Petite Sirah and Riesling, bring from $22 to $24. The eastern 
wine-makers, however, have the advantage of being close to the 
largest and best markets in the country. Wines made in the 
East are very different from those made in California and 
supply a different market. 

A few years ago most of the Muscadine grapes grown in the 
South were used for wine-making. From these grapes wine 
has been made since colonial times, and for a century there 
have been some large vineyards of Muscadine grapes in the 
South from which wine was made in a commercial way. Since 
Muscadine grapes do not sell well in the markets in com- 
petition with the grapes of the North or the Pacific slope, 
the Muscadine grape industry has been dependent on the wine 
industry of the section in which the fruit is produced. The 
growth of prohibition in the South, however, has driven the 
wine industry to the North and West and there is now little 
wine manufactured from Muscadine grapes in the South, al- 
though some grapes are shipped North for wine-making. The 
wine made from these grapes is very distinct in flavor and on 
that account a special trade has been developed for it. It is 
possible that this special trade will keep up the demand for 
Muscadine wine so that some part of the crop may be shipped 
to wine-making states to supply this demand. 

Grape- JUICE 

W^hen properly made, grape-juice is the undiluted, un- 
sweetened, unfermented juice of the grape and contains no 
preservatives, fermentation being prevented by sterilization 
with heat. The product is as ancient as wine, and, therefore, 
as the cultivation of the vine, for all wine-making peoples have 
used new wine or grape-juice as a beverage. For centuries 
physicians in wine-making countries have prescribed grape- 
juice as it comes from the wine-press for certain maladies, the 



GRAPE PRODUC-TS 257 

treatment constituting an essential part of the grape-cures of 
European countries. The process of making an unfermented 
grape-juice that will keep from season to season as an article of 
commerce is, however, a modern invention, and is the outcome 
of the discoveries of the last half century regarding the control 
of the agents of fermentation. 

The manufacture of commercial grape-juice in America, to 
which country the industry is confined, began as a home prac- 
tice following the fundamental processes of canning fruit. 
Toward the close of the last century, several inventive minds 
discovered methods of making a commercial product and began 
developing markets for their wares. The beginning of the 
present century found the new industry in full swing, since 
which time its growth has been truly marvelous. In 1900 
the amount of grape-juice made in the United States was so 
small as to be negligible in the census report of that year. By 
1910, the annual output had reached for the whole country over 
1,500,000 gallons and at present writing, 1918, it is well above 
3,500,000 gallons per annum. The manufacture of grape-juice 
(s no longer a home industry but a great commercial enterprise. 
It is an industry closely associated with grape-growdng, however, 
and as such needs further consideration here. 

Grape-juice regions. 

The manufacture of grape-juice is centered in the Chautauqua 
grape-belt in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. So far, 
the demand seems to be almost wholly for juices made from 
native grapes, the juice of European grapes grown on the Pacific 
slope being so sweet as to be insipid. Possibly 80 per cent of 
the grape-juice now manufactured in America comes from a 
single variety, the Concord. There can be no question, how- 
ever, but that sooner or later grape-juices of distinct qualities 
will be made from many varieties of grapes, thus giving wider 
sale and greater Nariation for the product. A very good spark- 



258 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ling grape-juice is now on the market and its reception seems 
to promise a great increase in the production of an article 
that closely simulates champagne in color and sparkling vi^'acity, 
but not, of course, in taste, since it contains no alcohol. The 
grape-juice industry has been started and is in a flourishing 
condition in several other grape regions than the Chautauqua 
belt which is now its center. There are factories at Sandusky, 
Ohio, using grapes grown in the Kelly Island district ; in south- 
western Michigan there are several factories ; and the industry 
still survives at Vineland, New Jersey, which probably should 
be called the original home of the manufacture of grape-juice. 
In the South, some grape-juice is made from Muscadine grapes, 
but this product seems not as yet to have been well received in 
the markets. 

Commercial methods of waking grape-juice. 

There is at present a great diversity of methods and of 
apparatus employed in the grape-juice manufacturing plants 
throughout the country. Since the industry is in its infancy, 
and the attempt has been made to hold some of the methods as 
trade secrets, the diversity of methods and appliances is not 
to be wondered at. No doubt there will be greater uniformity 
of method and machinery and, therefore, greater efficiency, as 
the industry develops. 

Husmann^ gives the following account of the manufacture of 
grape-juice in the eastern states and in California : 

"Sound, ripe, but not overripe, grapes are used. These are 
first crushed or, in case the stems are to be removed, are run 
through a combined stemmer and crusher. If the machinery is 
stationed high enough, the crushed fruit can be run through 
chutes directly into the presses or kettles ; otherwise, it must be 
pumped into them by means of a pomace or must pump or 
carried in pomace carts or tubs. 

' Husmanu, George C. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. No. 644. 



GRAPE PRODUCTS 259 

" If a white or light colored juice is desired, the crushed grapes 
are first pressed, the juice which comes from the press being 
heated to about 165° F., skimmed, run through a pasteurizer at 
a temperature of between 175° and 200° F. into well-sterilized 
containers, and then placed in storage. 

"If a colored juice is desired, the crushed grapes are heated 
immediately, usually in aluminum kettles having double 
bottoms, which prevent the steam from coming in contact with 
the contents. These kettles usually contain revolving cylinders, 
the arms of which keep the crushed grapes thoroughly stirred 
while they are being heated to about 140° F. The simultaneous 
heating and stirring help to extract the coloring matter from 
the skins, tear the cells of the berries, increase the quantity of 
juice obtained per ton of fruit, and give to the must many 
ingredients of red wine, with the substitution of grape sugar for 
alcohol of the wine. 

"The aluminum kettles are filled and emptied in rotation, 
thereby making contmuous manipulation possible. The presses 
should be situated below the kettles, so that the hot juice can 
be drained directly into them. The expressed juice is then 
reheated to about 165° F., skimmed, and run through the 
pasteurizer in the same manner in which the white juice is 
handled. The juice passes from the pasteurizer while still hot 
(about 160° F.) into the container, which should be sealed 
immediately. The lower the temperature (above the freezing 
point) at which these containers are then stored, the less is the 
danger of fermentation and the more rapidly the juice will clear 
and deposit its sediment. 

"The ordinary receptacles in which the juice is stored are 
5-gallon demijohns, 20-gallon carboys, or clean, new barrels or 
puncheons, well washed and drained. All containers should be 
thoroughly sterilized before they are filled, and the covers, corks, 
bungs, cloths, etc., used in sealing them should be scrupulously 
clean and carefully sterilized. If barrels or puncheons are used 



260 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

as containers, they are placed on skids and firmly wedged to pre- 
vent movement. As the jnice cools, air laden with fermentation 
germs is apt to be drawn into the barrels by the decrease in the 
volume of the liquid. In order to prevent this, tight air-filtering 
plugs of sterilized cotton are sometimes used instead of the 
ordinary bungs of solid wood. 

" The type of pasteurizer differs in almost every establishment. 
As the industry is of comparatively recent development com- 
mercially, there are few models on the market and each manu- 
facturer has constructed the model best suited to his particular 
ideas or requirements. There are two general types, however, 
(1) open, double-bottomed kettles in which the juice is heated 
to the required temperature and then drawn off, and (2) con- 
tinuous pasteurizers in which the juice is heated to the required 
temperature as it passes through the water bath. 

"The presses also show great variation in different establish- 
ments, either hydraulic, screw or lever power being used, and 
there is a marked difference between the types of pomace 
containers. Sometimes the crushed grapes are heaped on 
burlap cloths the sides of which are folded in, and these burlaps 
are placed one on top of the other in the press ; sometimes press 
baskets take the place of these burlaps. 

" The manufacturers in California and those in the grape-grow- 
ing regions of the Rocky Mountains seem to have adopted 
entirely different methods of handling the juice after it is first 
pasteurized and stored. Most of the eastern juices are red 
and are obtained from the Labrusca varieties, generally the Con- 
cord. When the juice comes from the presses, some manu- 
facturers strain it to remove the coarse particles and then pour 
it directly into well-sterilized bottles ; others siphon it off the 
sediment in the containers in which it is stored after the first 
pasteurization and pour it into pasteurized bottles. In either 
case, the bottles are securely corked and then repasteurized. 
The California juices, however, both red and white, are made 



GRAPE PRODUCTS 261 

exclusively from Vinifera varieties. They are allowed to settle 
in the original containers and are siphoned out of these and 
carefully filtered to make them clear and bright. 

"The clearing of the juice is sometimes facilitated by fining or 
adding a small quantity of a substance which coagulates and 
when settling carries down with it the solid matters causing 
cloudiness in the liquid. Such finings may be applied at the 
time of the first pasteurization or just before the final filtration 
and bottling. In the latter case the juice is drawn off the 
settlings in containers, the finings are added, and the juice 
again pasteurized into other receptacles. When it clears, it 
is either bottled directly or first passed through a filter, drawn 
into carefully sterilized bottles, securely corked, and then re- 
pasteurized. Care must be taken that the final sterilization is 
not at a higher temperature than the previous one ; otherwise, 
solid matter may be precipitated and the must clouded again. 

'' A simple and efficient form of sterilizer consists of a wooden 
trough provided with a wooden grating which is raised 2 inches 
from the bottom and on which rest the filled bottles in wire 
baskets. The trough contains enough water to submerge the 
bottles and is kept at a temperature of 185° F. by means of a 
steam coil beneath the grating. It requires about 15 minutes 
for the must at the bottom of the bottles to reach that tempera- 
ture ; for packages of other sizes it is necessary to make a test 
with a thermometer in order to determine how long it takes for 
the entire contents to reach 185°. 

"To prevent the corks from being expelled during sterilization, 
they are either tied down with a strong twine or with some 
contrivance such as the cork holder. In order that mold germs 
may not enter the must through the corks, especially if a poor 
quality of cork is used, the necks of the corked bottles are 
dipped in heated paraffin before putting on the caps, or the 
corks are sealed down with sealing wax. It is also well to keep 
the bottles on their rider to prevent the corks drying out." 



262 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Home methods of making grape-juice. 

The principles involved in making grape-juice in the home 
are the same as those used in canning. The grapes may be 
crushed by hand or in mills similar or identical with the small 
cider-mills owned by many farmers. In making a light-colored 
juice, the crushed grapes are put in a cloth sack and hiuig up to 
drain, or the filled sack may be twisted by two persons until the 
greater part of the juice is expressed. The juice is then sterilized 
in a double-boiler by heating it at a temperature of 180" to 
200° F., care being taken that the thermometer never goes above 
200". The sterilized juice is now poured into a glass or 
enameled vessel to stand for twenty-four hoiu-s, after which 
it is drained from the sediment and strained through several 
thicknesses of clean flannel. The juice is now put in clean 
bottles preparatory to a second sterilization, care being taken 
that at least an inch of space is left at the top for the liquid 
to expand when heated. The second sterilization may be 
conducted in a wash-boiler or similar receptacle. The filled 
bottles must not rest on the bottom of the boiler but should 
be separated from it with a thin board. The boiler is filled 
with water up to within an inch of the tops of the bottles 
and heated until the water begins to boil. The bottles should 
then be taken out and corked immediately, using only new 
corks. After corking, the bottles are further sealed by dip- 
ping the corks in melted paraffin. A chcfip corking machine 
is a great convenience in this work, and in any case the corks 
should be soaked for at least a half hour in warm but not 
boiling water. 

The process varies somewhat in the making of red grape-juice. 
The crushed grapes are heated .to a temperature of 200° F., 
and are then strained through a drip bag without pressure, after 
which the liquid is set away in glass or enamel vessels to settle 
for twenty-four hours. Except for this difference in the pre- 



GRAPE PRODUCTS 263 

liminary treatment of the juice, the methods are the same in 
making the red or the Hght-colored product. For proper keeping 
it is not necessary to let the juice settle after it is strained, but a 
clearer and brighter product is obtained if the juice is i)ermitted 
to settle. In either case the grape-juice should keep indefinitely 
if the work has been well done. As soon as bottles are opened, 
fermentation begins with the formation of alcohol. 

Raisins 

The grape is best conserved as a raisin. Canning is seldom 
practiced with this fruit. A raisin is a dried grape. Tree- 
fruits are evaporated as by-products, but the raisin is a primary 
product. This is a difference worth noting ; for with tree- 
fruits the cream of the crop goes to the fresh fruit market, while 
with the grape the entire crop of raisin varieties may go into 
the cured product. The raisin industry is dependent on a 
sunny and rainless climate and hence in America is confined 
to the grape regions of certain parts of California. In this 
state, raisin-making is a rich resource of the grape-grower, the 
annual output now averaging well above 200,000 pounds, grown 
on 120,000 acres of land, and having a market value of $10,000- 
000. Fresno County, California, produces nearly 60 per cent 
of the output of the state and the city of Fresno is the center 
of the industry. The raisin industry does not stand alone in 
California, as some raisin grapes, notably Muscat of Alexandria, 
are good dessert sorts and are also much used for wine and 
brandy. Only the first crop of the variety named is used for 
raisins, while practically all of the second crop each season is 
made into wine and brandy. 

Raisins proper are mostly made from the Muscat of Alex- 
andria, although other large, white, sweet grapes are sometimes 
used. Sultana raisins, naturally seedless, are made from 
Sultanina and the Sultana. The dried currants of commerce 



264 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

are made from grapes, and of these California produces small 
quantities from White Corinth. 

The following account of raisin-making is given by Husmann :^ 
"In the raisin districts grapes are ripe by the middle of 
August, the season often lasting into November. The average 
time necessary for drying and curing a tray of raisins is about 
three weeks, depending on the weather, the earliest picked grapes 
drying in ten days and the later ones often taking four weeks or 
more. 

"The method of drying is very simple. The bunches are 
cut from the vines and placed in shallow trays 2 feet wide, 3 
feet long, and 1 inch high on which the grapes are allowed to 
sun-dry, being turned from time to time by simply placing an 
empty tray upside down on the full one and then turning 
both over and taking off the top tray. After the raisins are 
dried they are stored away until they are packed and pre- 
pared for shipment. Some of the larger growers, in order 
not to run so much risk in drying on account of rain, and 
also to enable them to handle the crop fast enough, have 
curing houses, where the curing is finished after having been 
partially done outside." 

Dipping and scalding raisins. 

"The operation of dipping and scalding is designed to accom- 
plish several purposes, namely, to cleanse the fruit, to hasten 
its drying, and to give the dried fruit a lighter color. In dipping 
and drying, the fruit, immediately after being cut from the 
vines, is either dipped in clear water to first rinse it of particles of 
dust and other foreign matter, or it is taken direct to the scalder 
and immersed in a boiling alkaline mixture called 'legia' (lye) 
until the grapes show an almost imperceptible cracking of the 
skin, the operation consuming perhaps from one-fourth to one- 
half of a minute. This dipping calls for skill on the part of the 
1 Husmann, George C. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. No. 349. 1916. 



GRAPE PRODUCTS 265 

operator, the duration of the emersion depending on the strength 
and temperature of the mixture and the condition of the fruit. 
Desiccation follows the scalding process, which is accomplished 
on trays in the sun, the same as undipped raisins cured entirely 
by solar heat. On account of the scald they cure rapidly, and 
the fruit is also often of lighter color when cured. 

"The following formula has been used for Sultana and Sul- 
tanina grapes at Fresno : 

"Fifteen pounds of 'Greenbank's 98-per cent lye' are boiled in 100 
gallons of water. This mixture is for grapes containing 25 per cent of 
sugar. Should their sugar content be less, enough lye is added to re- 
move the bloom and open the pores of the skin of the grapes. After 
dipping, the grapes are spread on trays and sulphured for 1 to 1 § hours. 
Observation will show whether it may be necessary to vary this formula 
a trifle to suit conditions of ripeness and influence of temperature. 
The length of time required for dipping is ascertained by experience, 
and differs with the strength of the lye, the heat of the solution, and the 
thickness of the skins of the grapes." 

Packing raisins. 

"The raisins as received at the packing house are weighed 
and the loose raisins and those that are to be shipped as dried 
grapes are immediately run through a stemmer and grader 
which stems, cleans, and assorts the raisins into three or four 
different grades, after which they are packed and shipped to 
various parts of the country, some also being exported. Those 
producing cluster or layer raisins (if they have not already 
been equalized) are first stored in the equalizing rooms. In 
these rooms the sweat boxes, filled with layers of new raisins, 
are stacked and left usually from 10 to .30 days, or long enough 
for the overdried berries to absorb moisture from the under- 
dried ones. This sweating also properly softens and toughens 
the stems, which prevents their breaking and enables them to 
hold the berries better. In California, where the climate is so 
dry, no first class pack coukl be made without thus first equaliz- 
ing the raisins. After having been equalized the raisins are 



266 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



taken out, assorted into the different grades, and placed in 
trays holding 5 pounds each. The trays of the same grades 
are then pressed and stacked away in piles ready for packing. 

" Pressing the raisins so that they look well and so none are 
burst open is work requiring experience and good judgment. 
It takes four pressed trays to fill a 20-pound box. The loose 
raisins that have dropped from the cluster through handling 
before they were equalized are also graded, the largest, of 
course, making the choicest pack." 

Classes of raisms. 

"Previous to the consolidated organization of the packers 
the three best grades of raisins on the stems were known as 
'Imperial,' 'Dehesia,' and 'Fancy Clusters,' respectively. The 
California Raisin Growers Association established classi- 
fication and grades similar to those of the Spanish raisin 
packers, on which the French trade names are also based. The 
original Spanish, as well as Englivsh terms with which they 
correspond, and the different grades in descending order of 
quality are shown in the following table : 



Spanish Terms 


French Terms 


English Terms 


California Terms 


Imperial 


Imperiaux Extra 


Extra Imperial 


vSix-Crown 


Imperial Bajo 


Imperiaux 


Cluster 


Cluster 


Royan Bajo 


Royaux 


Imperial Cluster 


Five-Crown 


Guar t a (4a) 


Surchoix Extra 


Royal Cluster 


Cluster 


Quinta (5a) 


Choix Extra 


Choicest 


Four-Crown 






Choice Cluster 


Cluster 
Three-Crown 

Cluster 
Two-Crown 

Cluster 



"The grading is optical, as a result of experience, there being 
no linear or cubic measurement standard. Thus, a nice cluster 



GRAPE PRODUCTS 267 

with all berries of large size, would be a 'Six-Crown Cluster,' 
such being the very finest raisins on the stem. 'Five-Crown 
Clusters' were formerly the 'Dehesia' cluster, and 'Four- 
Crown Clusters' were formerly 'Fancy Clusters.' Graces less 
than ' Four-CrouTi ' on the stems (the ' Three-Crown ' and 
'Two-Crown') are known as 'Layers,' or 'London Layers.' 
These are placed in boxes containing 20 pounds net ; in half 
boxes of 10 pounds ; and quarter boxes of 5 pounds ; and in 
fancy boxes containing 2^ pounds. Loose raisins, or raisins 
off the stem, are graded into Two-Crown, Three-Crown, and 
Four-Crown raisins by being run through screens the meshes of 
which are thirteen thirty-seconds, seventeen thirty-seconds, 
and twenty-two thirty-seconds of an inch in size, respectiAcly. 
The Sultanina (erroneously called Thompson Seedless), ard 
the Sultana are packed in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to the case." 

Seeded raisins. 

"The invention of a raisin-seeding machine by George E. 
Pettit in the early seventies, and its use, has had a wonderful 
effect on the industry. 

"Seeded raisins were first put on the market by the late Col. 
William Forsythe, of Fresno, Cal., who at first found it very 
difficult to dispose of 20 tons. The output in the last L5 years 
has increased from 700 tons to 50,000 tons per annum, and their 
popularity is constantly increasing. In 1900 about 14,000 
tons were placed on the market, in 1905 about 21,000 tons, 
in 1910 about 31,000 tons, and in 1913 about 49,000 tons. The 
seeding machines in present use can turn out 300 tons per day. 
Seeded raisins are now the most important branch of the raisin 
industry. 

"A brief outline of how seeded raisins are prepared will 
prove interesting. The raisins are first exposed to a dry 
temperature of 140° F. for three to five hours, after which they 
are put through a chilling process so that the pedicels can be 



268 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

easily removed, and are then thoroughly cleansed by being 
passed through cleaning machines. They are then taken by 
automatic carriers to another room, spread out on trays, 
and exposed to a moist temperature of 130° F. to bring them 
back to their normal condition. The raisins pass to the 
seeding machine, where they are carried between rubber- 
faced rollers and the impaling device of the seeding machine 
which catches the seeds and removes them from the fruits as 
they are flattened between the surfaces of the rollers. The 
impaled seeds are removed from the roller by a whisking 
device in such a way as to be caught in a separate receptacle. 
The seeded raisins pass through chutes to the packing tables 
on the floor below. 

"The seeded or loose raisins are packed in 50-pound boxes; 
in 1 -pound cartons, 36 to the case ; in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to 
the case ; and some in bvilk in 25-pound boxes. 

" Information has recently been sent out to the effect that the 
California Associated Raisin Co. is arranging to do away with 
the grades in seeded raisins, so there will only be one grade. 
This contemplates using all of the Three-Crown, the smallest 
of the Four-Crown, and the best of the Two-Crown in one 
blended grade. 

"From the seeds, formerly used as a fuel, a number of by- 
products are now made. 

"The seeds and pedicels removed from the raisins in seeding 
vary from 10 to 12 per cent of the original weight of the raisins 
according to their conditions and quality. 

"The grading, seeding, facing, and packing have become 
separate branches of the industry, and the work is nearly all 
done by especially trained women, who have become experts 
at it. The establishments in which this work is done furnish 
employment for over 5000 persons. The aggregate pay roll 
each month during the season is between $200,000 and 
$350,000." 



GRAPE PRODUCTS 269 

Grape-vinegar 

A very good vinegar can be made from grapes, although 
as yet this outlet for over-production is not largely utilized 
in America. Grapes which are unsuitable for raisins, dessert, 
wine-making or grape-juice can be used for vinegar-making. 
Under the most favorable conditions, grape-vinegar cannot 
compete in cheapness with vinegar made from numerous other 
products and must, therefore, always sell at a high price. 
Indeed, it is doubtful whether a high-grade grape-vinegar 
can be manufactured at a less price than good wine. The 
production of grape-vinegar requires as much care, but possibly 
not as much expert knowledge, as the making of wine. Unlike 
the latter, however, the vinegar can be produced on a small 
scale for domestic purposes by any one possessing a knowledge 
of wine-making or vinegar-making. 

Grape-vinegar may be manufactured from either white or 
red grapes, although that from w^hite grapes is generally pre- 
ferred. It may be made either directly from grapes or from 
wine, the acetifying process being the same for both. There 
are, therefore, two distinct stages in the manufacture of this 
product. First, there must be alcoholic fermentation by which 
the sugar in the grape is changed into alcohol with the escape 
of carbonic acid gas. Second, acetic fermentation must follow 
the alcoholic fermentation by which the alcohol is changed into 
acetic acid. 

By-products of Grape Industries 

There are several valuable by-products in the wine-making 
and grape-juice industries, and even raisin-making yields a 
by-product in the seeds taken from the raisins. The utilization 
of these wastes has been rendered profitable in Europe, and 
there is no reason why by-products should not yield consider- 
able profit in America, as a few already do. Good authorities 



270 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

state that if all the wastes of the grape crop could be utilized 
the value of the crop would be increased over 10 per cent. 

Pomace. 

The pomace or marc, the residue left after grape pressing, 
is the most valuable of the by-products of the wine and grape- 
juice manufacturers. If the pomace is permitted to ferment, 
and afterwards is distilled, a product called pomace-brandy is 
made. Unscrupulous wine-makers often add water and sugar 
to pomace, after which it is refermented and the resulting 
product is sold as wine. Notwithstanding the fact that the 
word "wine" as applied to this product is a misnomer, the 
total amount of such wine made and consumed in America is 
large. Piquette is another product in which the pomace is 
put into fermenting vats, sprinkled with water and the liquid 
after a time is drawn off, carrying with it the wine contained 
in the pomace. This liquid is re-used in other pomace, until 
it is high enough in alcoholic strength, when it is distilled into 
"piquette" or "wash." 

In Europe, the pomace from stemmed grapes is said to make a 
sheep and cattle food of more or less value when salted slightly 
and stored in silos. The pomace is also oftentimes used as a 
manure, for which it has considerable to recommend it, being 
rich in potash and nitrogen. Acetic acid is made from pomace 
by drying it in vapor-tight rooms, during which process 50 to 
60 per cent of the weight of the pomace becomes vapor, and this, 
condensed, yields considerable quantities of acetic acid. 

Cream-of -tartar. 

The lees of wine, the sediment which settles in the casks in 
which new wine or grape-juice is stored, form a grayish or 
reddish crust on the inside of the receptacle. This is the argol 
or wine-stone of the wine-maker, and from it is made cream-of- 
tartar, an article considerably used in medicine, the arts and 



GRAPE PRODUCTS 271 

for culinary purposes. From 20 to 70 per cent of the lees con- 
sist of either cream-of-tartar, or of calcium tartrate, the latter 
also having commercial value. Red wines are much richer in 
argol than white wines. A ton of grapes yields from one to two 
pounds of argol. This product becomes a source of considerable 
profit in large wineries and in grape- juice manufacturing plants. 

Seeds. 

In Europe, the seeds are separated from the pomace and used 
in various ways. They are also utilized to a smaller extent in 
America, especially when separated from raisins. The seeds 
are used as food for horses, cattle and poultry, for which they 
are said to have considerable value. If crushed and ground, the 
seeds yield a clear yellow oil which burns without smoke or 
smell and which may also be employed as a substitute for olive 
oil. A ton of grapes yields from forty to one hundred pounds 
of seeds from which may be made from three to sixteen pounds 
of oil. This oil is also used as a substitute for linseed oil and 
in soap-making. Besides oil, the seeds yield tannin. After 
the oil and tannin have been taken from the seeds, there remains 
a meal which may still be utilized as a stock food or as a fertilizer. 

Domestic Uses for Grapes 

At present, when food conservation is being emphasized 
everywhere, mention of the domestic use for grapes is partic- 
ularly appropriate. The country over, no fruit is more 
generally grown than the grape ; yet grape products are not as 
common for home use as those of several other fruits, although 
many attractive and appetizing preserves can be made from 
grapes without the use of large quantities of sugar, spices or 
other ingredients. Few housekeepers realize the high quality 
and the cheapness of the products that can be made from the 
grape. Thus, grape-juice, jelly, jam, marmalade, grape-butter, 



272 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

catsup, spiced grapes, canned grapes, conserves in which grapes 
are used, preserves and mince-meat are among the desirable 
culinary products easily and cheaply prepared from home-grown 
grapes or those bought in the market. Only simple domestic 
utensils are needed in the preparation of any of these products. 

Grape-sirup is less easily produced, yet can be made in any 
home without the addition of sugar. It is not only a good table 
sirup, but is a most useful sugai substitute for the preparation 
of other culinary products. The Muscadine grapes in the 
South, to be purchased by almost every householder in south- 
eastern United States, in particular, are useful for these domestic 
products. Recipes for all of these products can be found in cook 
books, and one or two bulletins and circulars from the United 
States Department of Agriculture give recipes for preparing 
grapes for domestic purposes. Farmers' Bulletin 859 entitled 
Home Uses for Muscadine Grapes is a particularly valuable 
publication on this subject. 

It is interesting to note that several large manufacturers of 
grape-juice are putting on the market grape jams, jellies and 
marmalades. It would seem that these delicious and wholesome 
products would find a ready sale in the markets of the country, 
and that their manufacture would prove profitable to the maker 
and to the grape-grower. The greater the use of grapes for 
their products, the better the grower can breast the blows of 
unfavorable markets and over-production. 




Plate XX. — Isabella (X|j. 



CHAPTER XV 
GRAPE-BREEDING 

Chance, pure and simple, has been the greatest factor in 
the production of varieties of American grapes. From the 
millions of wild plants, an occasional grape of pre-eminent merit 
has caught the eye of the cultivator and has been brought into 
the vineyard to be the progenitor of a new variety. Or in the 
vineyards, more often in near-by waste lands, from the prodigious 
number of seedlings that spring up, pure or cross-bred, a plant 
of merit becomes the foundation of a new variety. An inter- 
esting fact in the domestication of the four chief species of 
American grapes is that none came under cultivation until 
forms of them, striking in value, had been found. Catawba, 
representing the Labrusca grapes ; the Scuppernong, the 
Rotundifolias ; Norton, from litis cBstivalis ; Delaware and 
Herbemont from the Bourquiniana grapes ; and Clinton from 
Mtis vnlpino, are, after a century, scarcely excelled, although 
in each species there are now many new ^•arieties. 

That our best grapes have come from chance is not because 
of a lack of human effort to produce superior ^'arieties. Of all 
fruits, the grape has received most attention in America from 
the generation of plant-breeders just passing. Grape-breeders 
have produced 2000 or more varieties, a medley of the hetero- 
geneous characters of a dozen species. That so many of this 
vast number are worthless is due more to a lack of knowledge 
of plant-breeding than to a lack of effort, for the order and 
system in plant-breeding that now prevail, disclosed by recent 
brilliant discoveries, were unknown to grape-breeders of the 
last century. 

T 273 



274 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



Grape Hybrids 

As early as 1822, Nuttall, a noted botanist, then at Harvard, 
recommended "hybrids betwixt the European vine and those 
of the I 'iiited States which would better answer the variable 
climates of North America." In 1830, William Robert Prince, 

Fig. 48, fourth proprietor 
of the then famous Linnean 
Botanic Nursery at Flush- 
ing, Long Island, grew 
10,000 seedling grapes 
" from admixture under 
every variety of circum- 
stance." This was prob- 
(\^^ ably the first attempt on a 
large scale to improve the 
native grapes by hybridiz- 
ing, although little seems to 
have come of it. Later, a 
Dr. Valk, also of Flushing, 
grew hybrids from which 
he obtained Ada, the first 
named hybrid, the intro- 
duction of which started 
hybridizers to work in all 
parts of the country where grapes were grown. 

Soon after Valk's hybrid was sent out, E. S. Rogers, Fig. 49, 
Salem, Massachusetts, and J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New 
York, began to give viticulturists hybrids of the European 
Vinifera and the American species which were so promising that 
enthusiasm and speculation in grape-growing ran riot. Never 
before nor since has grape-growing received the attention in 
America as given during the introduction of Rogers' hybrids. 
It was the expectation of all that we were to grow in America, 




Fig. 48. William Robert Prince. 



GRAPE-BREEDING 



275 



ill these hylirids, grapes but little inferior, if at all, to those 
of Europe. 

A statement of the difference between European and American 
grapes shows why American viticulturists have been so eager 
to grow either pure-breds from 
the foreign grape or hybrids 
with it. 

European grapes have a 
higher sugar-and-solid content 
than the American species; 
they, therefore, make better 
wines and keep much longer 
after harvesting and can be 
made into raisins. Also, they 
have a greater variety of flavors, 
which are more delicate, yet 
richer, with a pleasanter aroma, 
seldom so acid, and are always 
lacking the disagreeable, rancid 
odor and taste, the "foxiness," 
of many American varieties, 
pleasant astringency in some of the foreign grapes, and many 
varieties are without character of flavor. American table- 
grapes, on the other hand, are more refreshing, the unfer- 
raented juice makes a pleasanter drink, and lacking sweetness 
and richness, they do not cloy the appetite so quickly. The 
bunches and berries of the European grapes are larger, more 
attractive and are borne in greater quantities. The pulp, 
seeds and skins are somewhat objectionable in all of the native 
species and scarcely so at all in the Old World sorts. The 
berries of the native grapes shell from the stem so quickly that 
the bunches do not ship well. The vines of the Old World 
grapes are more compact in habit and require less pruning and 
training than do those of the native grapes ; and, as a species, 




E. S. Rogers. 



There is, however, an un- 



276 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

probably through long cultivation, they are adapted to more 
kinds of soil, to greater differences in environment and are 
more easily propagated than the American species. 

Because of tliese points of superiority in the Old World grape, 
since Valk, Allen and Rogers showed the way, American grape- 
breeders have sought to unite by hybridization the good char- 
acters of the Old World grape with those of the American. 
Nearly half of the 2000 grapes cultivated in eastern America 
have more or less European blood in them. Yet, despite the 
efforts of the breeders, few of these hybrids have commercial 
value. Whether because they are naturally better fixed, or 
long cultivation has more firmly established them, the vine 
characters of J^itis vinifrra more often appear in varieties aris- 
ing as primary hybrids between that and the native species, 
and the weaknesses of the foreign grape, which prevent their 
cultivation in America, crop out. Hybrids in which the vinif- 
era blood is more attenuated, as secondary or tertiary crosses, 
give better results. 

Several secondary hybrids now rank among the best of the 
cultivated grapes. Examples are Brighton and Diamond. 
The first is a cross between Diana-Hamburg, a hybrid of a 
Vinifera and a Labrusca, crossed in its turn with Concord, a 
Labrusca ; the second is a cross between lona, also a hybrid 
between a Vinifera and a Labrusca, crossed with Concord. 
Both were grown from seed planted by Jacob INIoore, Brighton. 
New York, in 1870. Brighton was the first secondary hybrid 
to attract the attention of grape-breeders, and its advent marked 
an important step in breeding grapes. 

The signal success achieved by hybridizers of the European 
grape with native species quickly led to similar amalgamations 
among American species. Jacob Rommel, of Morrison, ]\Iis- 
souri, beginning work about 1860, hybridized Labrusca and 
Vulpina grapes so successfully that a dozen or more of his vari- 
eties are still cultivated. All are characterized by great vigor 



GRA PE-BREEDING 



277 



and productiveness ; and, although they lack the qualities 
which make good table-grapes, the\' are among the best for 
wine-making. Rommel has had many followers in hybridiz- 
ing native species, chief of whom 
was the late T. V. Alunson, Fig. 
50, Denison, Texas, who literally 
made every combination of 
grapes possible, grew thousands 
of seedlings and produced many 
valuable varieties. 

Lmprovement by selection. 

Selection, continued through 
successive generations, so im- 
portant in the improvement of 
field and garden plants, has 
played but small part in the 
domestication of the grape. The 
period between planting and 
fruiting is so long that progress would be slow indeed were this 
method relied on. ^Moreover, selection, as a method in breed- 
ing, is possible only when plants are bred pure, and it is the 
experience of grape-breeders that in pure breeding this fruit 
loses in vigor and productiveness and that the variations are 
exceedingly slight and unstable. INIany pure-bred grapes have 
been raised on the grounds of the New York Agricultural 
Experiment Station under the eyes of the writer, of which 
^"ery few have surpassed the parent or have shown promise 
for the practice of selection. 

Neic varieties from sports. 

Bud-sports or mutations now and then arise in grapes. But 
not more than two or three of the 2000 varieties now under 
cultivation are suspected of having arisen in this way. It is 




Fig. 50. T. V. Munson. 



278 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

true that mutations seem to occur rather often in grapes, but 
they are easily confused with variations due to environment 
and are usually too vague to lay hands on. Until the causes of 
these mutations are known and until they can be produced and 
controlled, but little can be hoped for in the amelioration of 
grapes through mutations. 

Hybridizing the Grape 

Hybridization has been the chief means of improving the 
grape. At present, from what is being accomplished by many 
workers, it looks as if it will long continue to be the best means 
of improving this fruit. Since the grape-grower must depend 
on new varieties for progress, as old varieties cannot be changed, 
it should be the ambition of growers to produce varieties better 
than those we now have. JNIany amateur and professional 
grape-growers in the past have found breeding grapes a pleasing 
and profitable hobby, so that much knowledge has accumu- 
lated in regard to manipulating the plants in hybridization, 
and the results that follow in the offspring of hybridization. 

How to hybridize. 

It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the botany of 
flowers and the essential principles in crossing plants. If he 
is not, he must carefully study the structure of flowers, especially 
those of the grape, so as to be able to distinguish the different 
organs and to discover when the pollen and stigma are ready for 
the work of pollination. He should, also, read any one of several 
current books on plant-breeding. 

The first task in crossing grapes is to remove the anthers 
before the flower opens, a process known as emasculation. 
This is necessary to prevent self-pollination. This first opera- 
tion ha^'ing been performed, the cluster of grape-flowers must 
be tied securely in a bag to protect it from foreign pollen which 
otherwise would surelv be carried to the stigma bv insects. 



GRAPE-BREEDING 279 

As soon as the stigma is ready to receive the pollen, the bag 
is removed and pollen from the male parent is applied, after 
which the bag is again put on the flower to remain until the 
grapes are well set. By examining the stigmas in the flowers 
of uncovered grapes, the operator can tell approximately 
whether the covered stigma is ready to receive pollen. The 
time required after covering depends, of course, on the age of 
the bud when emasculation takes place. It is, by the way, 
best to delay emasculation until just before the flowers open, 
but one must be certain that the anthers have not discharged 
their pollen before the flower has been emasculated. 

Emasculation is a simple operation. The essential organs 
of the grape-flower are covered by a small cap ; this in some 
grapes must be removed before the anthers can be reached. 
In many native grapes, however, the cap and the anthers may 
be removed at one stroke by the operator. The best tool for 
this is a small pair of forceps. Each of the blades of the for- 
ceps in working with native grapes should have a sharp cutting 
surface, but with Vinifera sorts, where the cap must be re- 
moved before the anthers can be reached, forcep blades with 
a flat surface are best. There is, of course, some danger when 
the buds are well developed that the pollen may be squeezed 
out and so reach the stigma or adhere to the instrument and 
thus contaminate future crosses. The first danger must be 
avoided carefully by the skill of the operator, while the second is 
easily overcome by sterilizing the forceps in alcohol. An effort 
should be made to fertilize as many of the flowers in the cluster 
as possible, but success is not always certain ; when there is 
doubt, the uncertain flower should be removed from the cluster. 

The flower from which the pollen is to be taken must be pro- 
tected from wind and insects; otherwise pollen from another 
flower may be left on it. Protection should be given by tying 
the flowers in a bag while still in bud. There are various 
ways of obtaining pollen from ripe anthers and applying it to 



280 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

the stigma of the flowers to be crossed. The simpest is to crush 
the anthers, thus squeezing out the pollen, after which, with a 
brush, scalpel or other instrument, it may be placed upon the 
stigma. A brush is very wasteful of pollen and often becomes a 
source of contamination to future crosses, so that the scalpel 
is the better implement of the two. When pollen is plentiful, 
as will usually be the case when a man is working with vines in 
his own vineyard, by far the best method is to take the cluster 
from the male vine and apply the pollen directly to the stigma 
of the flower to be crossed, thereby making certain of fresh 
pollen and an abundance of it. The stigma, if pollen suffice, 
should be covered with pollen. 

Grape pollen does not keep well and an effort should be made 
to have it as fresh as possible. The work of pollination is best 
performed in bright, sunny weather when the pollen is very 
dry. As may be seen from the foregoing statements, tools 
and methods are of less importance than care in doing the work. 
The only tool absolutely necessary is a pair of forceps, although 
a hand-lens is often helpful. Bags for covering the flowers 
should be just large enough and no larger. A bag to cover the 
pollen-producing flower may well be an ordinary manilla bag 
sufficiently large to amply cover the flower-cluster. It is 
helpful, however, to have a light transparent oiled bag through 
which one can see the condition of the anthers. It is desirable 
that the bag for the female flower be permitted to remain until 
the fruits ripen as a protection against birds and fungi. It 
must, therefore, be of larger size. While the bags are still 
flat, a hole is made near the opening through which a string is 
passed which can be tied when the upper end of the bag is 
squeezed about the cluster. 

Choosing the parents. 

Very much depends on the immediate parentage in hybrid- 
izing grapes. Some varieties when crossed produce much 



GRAPE-BREEDING 281 

higher averages of worthy offspring than others. There is so 
much difference in varieties in this respect that to discover 
parents so endowed should be the first tasl<: of the grape-breeder. 
Fortunately, considerable work has been done by several ex- 
periment stations in breeding grapes, and their accumulated 
knowledge, together with that from such workers as Rogers, 
Ricketts, Campbell and iNIunson, furnishes beginners with 
good starting points. There is no way possible of discovering 
what the best progenitors are except by records of performance. 
Very often varieties of high cultural value are worthless in 
breeding because their characters seem not to be transmitted 
to their progeny and, to the contrary, a good-for-nothing 
variety in the vineyard is often valuable in breeding. 

From present knowledge it does not appear that new char- 
acters are introduced in plants by hybridizing. A new variety 
originating from hybridization is but a recombination of the 
characters of the parents ; the combination is new but the 
characters are not. Thus, one parent of a hybridized grape 
may contribute color, size, flavor and practically all thp char- 
acters of the fruit, while the other parent may contribute 
vigor, hardiness, resistance to disease and the characters of the 
vine. Or these and other characters in the make-up of a new 
grape may be intermingled in any mathematical way possible. 
The grape-breeder must make certain that one or the other of 
the parents possesses the particular characters he desires in 
his new grape. 

It is now known that the characters of the grape, in com- 
mon with those of other plants, are inherited in accordance 
with certain laws discovered by Mendel. The early workers 
in grape-breeding did not know of these laws and could 
not take aim in the work they were doing. Consequently, 
hybridization was a maze in which these breeders often 
lost themselves. Mendel's discoveries, however, assure a 
regularity of averages and give a definiteness and constancy 



282 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

of action which enable the grape-breeder to attain with 
fair certainty what he wants if he keeps patiently at his 
task. The grape-breeder should inform himself as to what 
Mendel's laws are, and on the work that has been done on 
the inheritance of characters of the grape. A technical bul- 
letin published by the State Experiment Station at Geneva, 
New^ York, and another from the North Carolina Station at 
Raleigh give much information on the inheritance of char- 
acters in certain grapes, and further information can be secured 
by applying to the United States Department of Agriculture at 
Washington for literature on the subject. 

The grape-breeder can hope to progress only by making many 
combinations between different varieties and growing large 
numbers of seedlings. He should extend his work to all varieties 
which show promise in the breeding of grapes for the particvilar 
purpose he has in mind. The seed may be saved and planted 
as directed in the chapter on propagation. Unless he desires 
to make scientific interpretations of his results, weak seedlings 
should be discarded the first year, and a second discard may be 
made before the young plants go in the vineyard. The breeder 
will soon discover that he can tell fairly well from the character 
of the seedlings whether they are of sufficient promise to keep. 
Thus, if the number of leaves is small or if the leaves themselves 
are small, the vine is of doubtful value ; if the internodes are 
exceedingly long, the prospect is poor ; slenderness of cane, if 
accentuated, does not promise well ; on the other hand, great 
stoutness and very short internodes are not desirable indications. 
Through these and other signs, the breeder will come quickly 
to know which vines should eventually go to the vineyard. 



Results of Grape-breeding 

There are now 2000 or more varieties of grapes of American 
origin, all produced within approximately a century. It is 




Plate XXI. — Jefferson (Xf). 



GRAPE-BREEDING 283 

doubtful whether any other cultivated plant at any time in 
the history of the world has attained such importance in so 
short a_ time from the wild state as American grapes. It would 
seem that almost every possible combination between species 
worth considering has been made. Through hybridization, 
species and varieties have become so mixed that the grape- 
breeder cannot now work intelligently with these gross forms 
and must work with characters rather than with species and 
varieties which are but combinations of characters. Great 
progress, it is true, has been made in the past in breeding grapes 
in America, but the work has been wholly empirical and ex- 
tremely wasteful. jNIany varieties have been called, but few 
have been chosen. With the new knowledge of breeding and 
with the experience of past workers, progress should be made 
with greater certainty. From what has been done and from 
work now under way, it is not too much to say that we shall 
soon be growing grapes everywhere in America, and kinds so 
diverse that they will meet not only all purposes to which 
grapes are now^ put, but also the demand for better grapes made 
by more critical consumers. 



CHAPTER XVI 
MISCELLANIES 

There yet remain several phases of grape-culture essential 
to success, none of which quite deserves a chapter and none of 
which properly falls into any of the foregoing chapters. The 
subjects are not closely related, are by no means of equal im- 
portance, yet all are too important to be relegated to the limbo 
of an appendix and are, therefore, thrown into a chapter of 
miscellanies. 

Cross-pollination 

The blooming of the vine had little significance to the grape- 
grower, the blooming period being so late that grapes are sel- 
dom caught by frost, until the discovery was made that many 
varieties of grapes are unable to fertilize themselves, and that 
failure of crops of these varieties was often due to the self- 
sterility of the variety. Until this discovery, the uncertainty 
attending the setting of the grape in these varieties was one of 
the discouragements of grape-growing. Following investiga- 
tions of the self-sterility of the tree-fruits, an investigation of 
the grape showed that the vines of this fruit are often self- 
sterile. This knowledge has in some degree modified the plant- 
ing of all home collections and has more or less affected the 
plantings of commercial sorts. 

Varieties of American grapes show most remarkable differ- 
ences in the degree of self-fertility. ]\Iany sorts fruit per- 
fectly without cross-pollination. Others set no fruit whatso- 
ever if cross-pollination is not provided for. Most varieties, 
however, are found in groups between the two extremes, neither 

284 



MISCELLANIES 



285 



self-fertile nor self-sterile. Figure 51 shows staminate and per- 
fect clusters on one vine. Some varieties show no variation 
in the degree of self-sterility or self-fertility ; others behave 
differently in regard to these characters under different envi- 
ronment. Now and then the widest variations are to be found 
in a variety in respect to self-fertility. 

Following the lead of Beach at the New York Agricultural 
Experiment Station, several workers have made careful studies 




Fig. 51. 



Staminate and perfect clusters on one vine ; right, staminate ; 
left, perfect. 



of the self-fertility of the grape, and now the cultivated varieties 
of native grapes are divided into four groups in accordance 
with the degree of self-fertility. Class I includes self-fertile 
varieties having perfect or nearly perfect clusters ; Class II 
includes self-fertile varieties having clusters loose but market- 
able ; Class III includes varieties which are so imperfectly self- 
fertile that the clusters are generally too loose to be marketable ; 
Class IV includes self-sterile varieties. The following is a list 
of commonly cultivated grapes classified according to the 
divisions just given : 



286 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPES ACCORDING TO 
SELF-FERTILITY 

Class I. Clusters perfect or varying from perfect to somewhat loose. 



Berckraans 

Bertha 

Cottage 

Croton 

Delaware 

Diamond 

Diana 



Etta 

Janesville 

Lady Washington 

Lutie 

Moore Early 

Niagara 

Poughkeepsie 



Pocklington 

Prentiss 

Rochester 

Senasqua 

Winchell 

Worden 



Class II. Clusters marketable ; moderately compact or loose. 



Agawam 

Brilliant 

Brown 

Catawba 

Champion 

Chautauqua 

Clinton 

Colerain 

Concord 



Dutchess 
Early Victor 
Elvira 

Empire State 
Fern Munson 
Hartford 
lona 
Isabella 
Isabella Seedling 



Jefferson 

Jessica 

Lady 

Mills 

Missouri Riesling 

Perkins 

Rommel 

Triumph 

Ulster 



Class III. Clusters unmarketable. 



Brighton 
Canada 
Draeut Amber 
Eumelan 
Geneva 



Hayes 

Lindley 

Noah 

Northern Muscadine 

Vergennes 



Class IV. Self-sterile. No fruit develops on covered clusters. 



America 

Aminia 

Barry 

Black Eagle 

Clevener 

Creveling 

Eldorado 



Faith (?) 

Gaertner 

Grein Golden 

Hercules 

Jewel 

Massasoit 



Maxatawney (?) 

Merrimac 

Montefiore 

Requa 

Salem 

Wyoming 



In the main, the cause of infertiHty, as with other fruits, is 
the impotency of pollen on the pistils of the same variety. 



MISCELLANIES 287 

There are a few cases in which pollen does not seem to be formed 
abundantly, but these are very few. There are a few cases, 
also, in which the pistil does not become receptive until after 
the pollen has lost its vitality ; these, however, are very few. 
In a greater number of cases the pollen is found defective. 
However, dismissing all of these as the exception, the rule is 
that self-sterility is due, as has been said, to the lack of affinity 
between pollen and pistils produced on the vines of some 
varieties. 

Nature is helpful to the grape-grower in giving a guide to self- 
fertility. The length of stamens is a fairly safe indication of 
self-fertility. All grapes which are self-fertile bear flowers 
with long stamens, although the latter are not a sure sign of 
self-fertility, as a few varieties with long stamens are self- 
sterile. On the other hand, short or recurved stamens are 
always associated with complete or nearly complete self- 
sterility. 

The remedy for self-sterility is inter-planting. Only the 
varieties named in Classes I and II in the foregoing classifi- 
cation should be planted alone. The sorts named in Classes 
III and IV must be planted near other sorts which bloom 
at the same time in order that their flowers may be cross- 
pollinated. 

It is evident that the grape-grower must have some knowledge 
of the relative time that grapes bloom, if he is to plant intelli- 
gently to secure cross-pollination. The following table, taken 
from Bulletin 407 of the New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station, shows the blooming time of grapes at that Station. 
Variations due to location and season must be expected, but 
within the bounds of the regions in which these grapes are 
grown variations will be slight. When this table is used for 
other regions than New York, it must be borne in mind that 
the farther south, the longer the blooming season ; the farther 
north, the shorter the season. 



288 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Blooming dates of grapes. 

From three years' records, the average length of blooming 
season for grapes was twenty days, nineteen days in 1912 and 
1914 and twenty-two days in 1913. The first date in the 
average year of 1912 was June 14, while for 1914, it was June 7 : 

Table IV. — Showing Blooming Time of Grapes 





< 

> 


« 

<! 


c 

m 

■«! 

m 

§ 




m 

% 
Hi 

> 




>- 

p: 

w 

> 


>• 


o 

s 


< 


a 

H 

-i 
> 


Agawam 






* 


* 




Diana .... 






* 

* 






America 






Downing .... 








August Giant 






* 


Dracut Amber 




* 




Bacchus 


* 




Dutchess 






* 




Barry 




* 


* 




Eariy Victor 

Eaton 




* 






Beacon 






* 
* 
* 






Bell 




* 
* 












Berckmans 










Eldorado 








Black Eagle 




* 
* 

* 
* 
* 










* 




Brighton 










* 
* 
* 


* 




Brilliant 






Etta 






















Campbell Eariy. . . 


















* 


Faith 




* 






Canandaigua 




* 




* 








* 










Gaertner 






* 
* 

* 
* 










* 
















* 














* 






Gold Coin 










* 
* 








* 




Clinton 










Hartford 




* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 


* 




Colerain 




* 

* 
* 






Headlight 














Helen Keller 








Imperial 


Herbert 








Concord 






Hercules 








Cottage 




* 


Hicks 








Creveling 




* 


* 




Hidalgo 








Croton 






Hosford 








Delago 






* 
* 
* 


lona 








Delaware 






Isabella 

Jane.sville 


* 


* 








j 
















' 



MISCELLANIES 



289 



Table IV. — Showing Blooming Time of Grapes — Continued 





>• 
< 
>< 
> 


< 


aj 
o 




J 

a 
> 




< 

> 


< 


i 

a 




m 

H 

-< 

> 


Jefferson 










* 


Norton 








* 


Jessica 




* 






Oporto 


* 






* 
* 








* 








Kensington 




* 


Peabody 






* 
* 
* 
* 
* 




King 




* 


* 
* 


* 


Perfection 








Lady Washington . 






Perkins 








Lindlev 






* 
* 
* 
* 


Pierce 








Lucile 






Pocklington 








Lutie 






Poughkeepsie 








McPike 






Prentiss 






* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 




Manito 






Rebecca 








Martha 






* 
* 
* 
* 
* 


Regal 








Massasoit 






Requa 








Maxatawney 






Rochester 








Merrimac 














Mills 






Salem 








Missouri Riesling . 




* 










Montefiore 


* 
* 
* 
* 
* 






Senasqua 






* 


Moore Early 






J*'tark-Star 










* 


Moyer 






Triumph 










* 


Nectar 






Ulster 




* 








Niagara 










* 
* 
* 
* 






Noah 




* 
* 










Northern 










Worden 








Muscadine 


Wyoming 



























Ringing Grape Vines 

The ringing of woody plants is a well-known horticultural 
practice. Three objects may be attained by ringing : unpro- 
ductive plants may be brought into bearing by ringing; the 
size of the fruits may be increased and thereby the plants be 
made more productive ; and the maturity of the fruit may be 
hastened. In European countries, ringing has long been prac- 
ticed with all tree-fruits and the grape, but in America the 
operation is recommended only for the apple and the grape 



290 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

and with neither fruit is ringing wideK' practiced. Experiments 
carried on at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station 
by Paddock, as reported in Bulletin 151 from this Station, show 
that ringing may well be practiced by grape-growers under 
some conditions. Since Paddock's experiments, and possibly 
to some extent before, the grape has been ringed to produce 
exhibition fruits or a fancy product for the market. 

Ringing consists in taking from the vine a layer of bark 
around the vine through the cortex and bast of the plant. The 
width of the wound varies from that of a simple cut made with 
a knife to a band of bark an inch in diameter. The operation 
is performed during that period of growth in which the bark 
peels most readily from the vine, the period of greatest cam- 
bial activity. The term "ringing" is preferred to "girdling," 
a word sometimes used, since the latter properly designates a 
wound which extends into and usually kills the plant. 

The theory of ringing is simple. Unassimilated sap passes 
from the roots of the plant to the leaves through the outer 
layer of the woody cylinder. In the leaves this raw material 
is acted on by various agents, after which it is distributed to 
the several organs of the plant through vessels in the inner bark. 
When plants are ringed, the upward flow of sap is continued as 
before the operation, but the newly made food compounds can- 
not pass beyond the injury, and therefore the top of the plant is 
supplied with an extra amount of food at the expense of the 
parts below the ring. The extra food produces the results 
noted. 

It turns out in practice that ringing is usually harmful to the 
plant, as one might expect from so unnatural an operation. 
Injury to the plant arises from the fact that parts of the vine 
are starved at the expense of other parts ; and because, when 
the bark is removed, the outer layers of the woody cylinder 
dry out very quickly and thus check to some extent the up- 
ward flow of sap through evaporation from the exposed wood. 



MISCELLANIES 291 

Thus, not infrequently, the plant's vitality is seriously drahied. 
Nevertheless, vineyards may be found in which ringing has 
been extensively practiced many seasons in succession and 
which continue to yield profitable crops, the growers having 
learned to perform the work of ringing so as to injure the vines 
but little. 

Ringing without harm to the plant depends much on the way 
in which the vines have been pruned. For instance, if the 
vines are pruned to the two-arm Kniffin method, the ringing 
of bark should be done from both arms just beyond the fifth 
bud. Thus, the ten buds left on the vine produce enough 
leaf surface to supply the food necessary to keep the vine in 
vigorous condition. When the four-arm Knifiin method is 
used, the two top arms only are ringed, and even so three or 
four buds must be left on each for renew^als. Whatever the 
method of training, it will be seen from these examples that 
some unringed wood must be left to the vine with which to 
supply leafy shoots to support the vine. Some growers ring 
their vines only every other year, thus giving them an oppor- 
tunity to recover from whatever loss of vigor they may have 
sustained in the season of ringing. 

Several other considerations are important in ringing : First, 
the vines must not be permitted to carry too large a crop. 
Again, the amount of fruit on the ringed portion of the vine 
must depend on the amount of leaf surface not only of the 
plant but of the ringed arms, each ringed arm acting somewhat 
independently so far as its crop is concerned. If too many 
clusters are left on the ringed arms, it ahvays follows that the 
fruit is inferior and often worthless. Lastly, all fruit be- 
tween the rings and the trunk must be removed, for it does 
not mature properl}^ and so adds only to the drain on the 
plant's vitality. 

As to the results, it is certain from the experiments that have 
been conducted and from the experience of grape-growers, that 



292 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



the maturity of the fruit is hastened, and berries and bunches 
are larger when the ringing has been done inteUigently. IMany 
growers hold that fruit produced on ringed vines is never quite 
up to the mark in quality and in firmness of fruit. There 
seems to be a difference in opinion about this falling off in 
quality, however, although unquestionably, choice sorts, as 
Delaware, lona and Dutchess, suffer more or less in quality. 

It is commonly agreed, also, 
that varieties, the fruits of 
which crack badly, as the 
Worden, suffer more from 
cracking on ringed than on 
unringed vines. 

Experiment and experience 
prove that the best results of 
ringing are obtained if the 
work is done when the grapes 
are about one-third grown. 
Of course the exact time de- 
pends on the season and on 
the variety. The operation 
is variously performed and is 
easily done with a sharp knife, 
but when large vineyards are to be ringed the grower ought to 
provide himself with some simple tool. Paddock, in the bulle- 
tin previously mentioned, pictures two of these tools and these 
are reproduced in Fig. 52. 

In conclusion it must be said that it is doubtful whether the 
gains attained by ringing oft'set the losses. The practice is 
chiefly of value only when exhibition clusters of grapes 
are wanted or when it is necessary to hasten the maturity 
of the crop. Always, however, the work must be per- 
formed with intelligence and judgment or the losses will offset 
the gains. 




Fig. 52. Tools used in ringing 
grape-vines are shown in 1 and 2 ; while 
3 and 4 show ringed vines at the be- 
ginning and the close of the season. 



MISCELLANIES 293 



Bagging Grapes 



In some localities bagging is considered an essential to profit- 
able grape-growing. The bags serve to protect the grapes 
against birds. In some grape regions vineyards suffer more 
from the depredations of robins and other birds than from all 
other troubles. Grapes bearing small berries and having 
tender pulp and those which shell most readily from the stem 
suffer most. Of standard sorts, Delaware is probably more 
enticing to robins than any other variety. There is only one 
way of preventing damage to grapes from birds and that is by 
bagging the clusters. 

Bagging is also an effective means of protecting the grape 
from several fungi and insects. In home plantations or small 
commercial vineyards, bagging the bunches often eliminates 
the necessity of spraying for fungi and for most of the insects 
that trouble the grape. Because of the warmth afforded by the 
bags, bagged grapes ripen a little earlier and are of somewhat 
higher quality than those not bagged. Grapes bagged are pro- 
tected from early frost, thus prolonging the season. Grapes 
that have been protected from the elements during the summer 
are more attractive than those exposed to the weather, since the 
fruits are free from weather marks and present a fresh, bright 
appearance, which puts them in a grade above unbagged 
grapes. Bagging often enables the grower to sell his crop as a 
fancy product. 

Grapes are bagged as soon as the fruits are well set, the 
sooner the better if protection against fungi is one of the pur- 
poses. Under no circumstances, however, should the clusters 
be bagged while in blossom. A patent bag made for the pur- 
pose may be purchased or, serving equally well, the common 
one and one-half and two-pound manila bags used by grocers 
prove satisfactory. One of the patent bags which is known as 
the Ideal Clasp Bag has a metal clasp attached to the top for 



294 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

securing the bag in place over the ckister. In using the 
grocer's bag, before it is put in place the corners of both the 
top and bottom are cut off by placing several bags on a firm 
level surface and using a broad-shaped chisel. Cutting off the 
corners of the top enables the operator to close the bag neatly 
over the cluster, while cutting oft' the corners of the bottom fur- 
nishes a means of escape for any water that gets in the bag. 
In putting the bag in place, the top is pinned above the lateral 
from which the bunch hangs, and must not be fastened about 
the small stem of the cluster, as the wind blowing the bag al- 
most invariably breaks the cluster from the vine. The largest 
pins to be purchased in dry-goods stores are used in pinning the 
bags. The bags remain until the grapes are picked. Wet 
weather does not injure bags and seemingly they grow stronger 
with exposure to sun and wind. 

The cost of the bags and the work of putting them on is no 
small item. To secure the best results, the work must be done 
at the period between the dropping of the blossoms and the 
formation of the seeds, when the grapes are about the size of 
a small pea. This is a busy time for the grape-grower, which 
adds to the cost. When the work is conducted on a large 
scale, the cost is about two dollars a thousand bags, this figure 
covering both the cost of bags and labor. Women do the work 
more expeditiously than men and soon become very skillful in 
putting on the bags. Despite the trouble and cost of bagging, 
growers seeking to produce a fancy product find that the ex- 
penditure proves profitable. 

Winter-protection of Grapes 

With a little care as to winter-protection, grapes may be 
grown profitably in northern regions where, without protection, 
the vines are killed or injured by low temperatures. Indeed, it is 
little short of amazing how well grapes can be grown in north- 



MISCELLANIES 295 

ern regions where nature wears a most austere countenance in 
winter, if hardy early sorts are planted in warm soils and situ- 
ations, and the vines are covered in the winter. Occasionally 
one finds grapes grown profitably in commercial vineyards in 
the northern states in regions where protection must be given 
to prevent winter-killing, the extra work of giN'ing protection 
being more than oft'set by the high price received in local markets 
for the fruit. 

In all locations in which winter-protection must be given, 
several other precautions are helpful or even necessary. Thus, 
cultivation must cease early in the season, and a cover-crop be 
sown to help harden and mature the vines. The grapes, also, 
must not be planted in soils rich in nitrogen, and nitrogenous 
fertilizers must be applied with care. The pruning should be 
such as does not induce great growth. These simple precau- 
tions to hasten maturity often suffice in climates where the 
danger of winter-killing is but slight, but where danger is 
imminent the vines must be covered either by wrapping or by 
laying down. Wrapping with straw may suffice for a few 
vines, but when many vines are to be protected, laying them 
down is cheaper and much more effectual. 

By laying down is meant that the vines must be placed on 
the ground and there be protected by earth and snow or other 
covering. It is obvious that to protect thus, the vines must 
receive special training ; otherwise the trunks may be too stiff 
for bending. Some method of training must be chosen in 
which renewals may be made rather frequently from the ground 
so that if the trunks become large, clumsy and unpliable, a more 
manageable trunk can be trained. If the provisions for re- 
newal are kept in mind, any one of the several methods of 
training grapes explained in Chapter VIII on training may be 
used. 

Laying down must be preceded by pruning, after which the 
arms and trunk are loosened from the wires and bent to the 



296 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ground. Bending is facilitated by removing a spade full of 
earth from the side of the vine in the direction in which the 
vine is to be bent. The trunk is then laid on the earth and 
sufficient soil placed on it to keep it in place on the ground. If 
the danger of winter-killing is great because of the tenderness 
of the variety or the austerity of the climate, it often becomes 
necessary to cover the whole plant lightly with earth. Small 
growers often make use of coarse manure, straw, corn-stalks or 
similar covering, in which case the vines are held on the ground 
by fence-rails or other timbers ; but protecting with material 
that must be brought into the vineyard is expensive and not 
more satisfactory than earth. 

The vines can be put down at any time after the leaves drop 
and before the earth begins to freeze. It is more important that 
the vines be taken up at the proper time in the spring. If un- 
covered too early and cold weather follows, injury may result 
and more harm be done than if the vines had not been covered. 
On the other hand, if the earth is permitted to remain too long, 
foliage and vine are tender both to sunshine and frost. A grape- 
grower in New York who has had much experience in laying 
down vines in a vineyard of some thirty or forty acres says 
that the work may be done at a cost of $6 an acre at the 
average wage paid for farm-labor. It must be expected in a 
large plantation, no matter how well the work of covering is 
done, that occasionally a trunk will be broken, making it neces- 
sary to graft the vine if a shoot does not spring up from below 
the break. 

Ripening Dates and Length of Season for Grapes 

Every grape-grower should know when his varieties may 
be expected to ripen and the length of season that they will 
keep. The commercial fruit-grower by all means should have 
this information. It is not sufficient that he know only roughly 



MISCELLANIES 297 

at what season his varieties ripen ; for, to take the turn of the 
market, he must know exactly when a variety will ripen and 
how long it will keep. He needs this information, also, that he 
may distribute his labor better throughout the picking season. 

Unfortunately, the data as to ripening time given by origi- 
nators and introducers of varieties are not always reliable. This 
untrustworthiness of data is readily accounted for in several 
ways : First, growers do not generally agree as to when grapes 
are ripe nor as to how long they are fit to eat. Again, much 
confusion as to when varieties ripen and how long they will 
keep arises from the fact that grapes ripen at different times in 
different places, and it is difficult for the grape-grower in 
Maine to make allowance in season for varieties, the time of 
ripening of which is given for Maryland. There are also 
other causes than the seasonal differences in grape regions for 
variability in ripening time ; thus, some soils are M'armer and 
quicker than others, and on these grapes ripen earlier. Appli- 
cation of nitrogenous fertilizers may delay the period of ripen- 
ing somewhat. Grapes ripen perceptibly earlier on old plants 
than on young ones. Lastly, every vineyard in a particular 
region has its own particular climate caused by the lay of land, 
nearness to water, air currents and altitude which cause small 
differences in ripening. 

The following table taken from Bulletin No, 408 of the New 
York Agricultural Experiment Station gives the ripening dates 
of grapes at Geneva, New York. It is necessary that the reader 
know something about the conditions affecting the ripening time 
at Geneva. The latitude is 42° 50' 46''. The altitude is 525 
feet above sea le\'el. The vineyard lies a mile west of a rela- 
tively large body of water. The soil is a cold heavy clay which 
must delay ripening time somewhat. The land is level. The 
data are given as an average for three seasons, 1913-1915. 

The figures given for "weeks in common storage" cover a 
variable number of years, but for all varieties three or more 



298 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



years. The grapes, after being picked, were at once placed in 
common storage in a room on the second floor of a building. 
There conditions were not ideal, and no doubt the season of 
storage would have been prolonged somewhat had the fruit 
been kept in a better storage-room. 

Table V. — Showing the Ripening Time of Grapes 





" z s 
m a 


K 
< 

n 
a 
> 


< 


o 

a 
a 

9- 


m 
< 


a 

■< 

Si 

m 
> 




2 

" Z H 
m o 


S3 

■< 

w 

« 

> 


PS 


•z 

o 

CD 

< 

m 

a 

<5 




m 
< 

>< 
K 

> 


Agawam . . . 










* 




Diana 

Downing. . . 


17 










* 


America . . . 






* 

* 

* 










* 




Barry 

Beacon. . . . 


28 

7 

8 

21 

18 

20 

11 

6 

12 
17 

20 

17 

21 

6 

10 
13 
21 

8 

7 
8 
5 
16 
23 
2-> 
15 
10 




* 






Dracut 

Amber. . . 
Dutchess . . 
Early Ohio. 
Early 

Victor. . . 

Eaton 

Eclipse. . . . 
Eldorado . . 

Elvira 

Empire 

State . . . 

Etta 

Eumelan. . . 

Faith 

Fern 

Munson . 
Gaertner 
Geneva. . . . 
Goethe. . . . 
Gold Coin . . 
Grein 

Golden . . 
Hartford.. . 
Headlight. . 
Helen 

Keller. . . 
Herbert. . . . 
Hercules. . . 
Hicks 


9 
23 

11 
6 

7 
17 
18 

24 
15 
17 
11 

11 
17 

22 
18 
10 

12 

8 
8 

26 
27 
13 
10 


* 
* 


* 






Bell 


* 






Berckmans . 


* 
* 
* 
* 
* 








Black Eagle 
Brighton. . . 










Brilliant . . . 






* 




Brown 


* 

* 








Campbell 










Early 




* 


* 




Canada. . . . 




* 
* 


* 




Canandai- 










gua 








* 


Carman. . . . 






* 




* 








Catawba. . . 


* 






Champion . 




* 








Chautau- 




* 
* 

* 


* 


* 


qua .... 
Clevener. . . 




* 


* 






Clinton .... 


* 


* 


* 

* 






* 


Colerain . . . 








* 

* 




Columbian 
Imperial . 
Concord. . . 
Cottage . 










* 




* 




Creveling . . 












* 

* 




Croton .... 










Delago 








* 






* 




Delaware . . 




* 








Diamond . . 












* 















MISCELLANIES 



299 



Table V. — Showing the Ripening Time of Grapes — Continued 





<5 

" Z H 

SO 2 


1" 

« 
< 

« 
a 
> 




o 

m 

< 

w 
to 
e 


< 


< 

>> 
» 

> 




" Z H 
rO O 
M S -< 

w i « 

^o8 


K 
> 


>• 

K 
<! 


< 

10 

a 


Ed 
< 


W 
H 
<! 
1-1 

» 
> 


Hidalgo .... 


12 
6 
13 
11 
13 
18 
12 
12 
19 






* 


* 


* . 


Noah 

Northern 
Musca- 
dine 

Norton. . . . 

Oporto .... 

Ozark 


10 

9 

7 
12 
11 






* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 














Isabella 

Janesville . . 
Jeffer.son . 






* 
* 


* 






* 
* 




























* 




Perfection . 
Perkins 


8 






* 








* 






Lady Wash- 
ington. . . 
Lindley. . . . 


16 

27 

9 

4 

7 

7 

10 

16 

12 
31 
29 

6 
9 

6 

9 

10 

10 






* 




Pierce 

Pocklington 
Pough- 

keepsie . . 
Prentiss. . . . 
Rebecca. . . 

Regal 

Requa 

Rochester. . 
Rommel. . . 

Salem 

Secretary . . 
Senasqua . . 
Stark-Star . 
Triumph. . . 

Ulster 

Vergennes . 

Wilder 

Winchell. . . 
Worden . . . . 
Wyoming. . 


12 












* 

* 






* 




* 
* 


15 

16 

18 

16 

30 

7 

10 

27 

25 

13 

10 

15 

21 

28 

11 

6 

6 

9 










Lutie 




* 

* 
* 
* 




McPike.. . . 




* 


* 

* 
* 








* 




Martha. . . . 
Massasoit. . 
Maxa- 






* 

* 

* 

* 






* 
* 




Merrimac 










Mills 
























* 


Riesling . 
Montefiore . 










* 


* 




* 








* 
* 
* 




Moore 










Early... . 

Moyer 

Nectar 










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Niagara. . . . 



























CHAPTER XVII 
GRAPE BOTANY 

The grape-grower must know the gross structure and the 
habits of growth of tlie plants properly to propagate, trans- 
plant, prune and otherwise care for the grape. Certainly he 
must have knowledge of the several species from which varieties 
come if he is to know the kinds of grapes, understand their 
adaptations to soils and climates, their relation to insects and 
fungi, and their value for table, wine, grape-juice and other 
purposes. Fortunately, the botany of the grape is compara- 
tively simple. The organs of vine and fruit are distinctive 
and easily discerned and there are no nearly related plants cul- 
tivated for fruit with which the grape can possibly be con- 
fused. Botanists, it is true, have dug pitfalls for those who 
seek exact knowledge as to the names and characters of the 
many species, but, fortunately, each of the cultivated species 
constitutes a natural group so distinct that the grape-grower 
can hardly mistake one for another in either fruit or vine. 

Plant Characters and Growth Habits of the 
Grape 

A grape plant is a complex organism with its many separate 
parts especially de^•eloped to do one or a few kinds of work. 
The part of a plant devoted to one or a group of functions is 
called an organ. The chief organs of the plant are the root, 
stem, bud, flower, leaf, fruit and seed. Flowers and leaves, it 
is true, develop from buds and the seeds are parts of the fruits, 

300 



GRAPE BOTANY 301 

but for descriptive purposes the vine may well be divided into 
the parts named. These chief organs are further divided as 
follows : 

Tlic root. 

Rool-crowti: The region of the plant in which root and stem unite. 

Tap-root : The prolongation of the stem plunging vertically down- 
ward. 

Rootlets : The ultimate divisions of the root ; usually of one season's 
growth. 

Root-tips : The extreme ends of the rootlets. 

The roots of some species of the grape are soft and succulent 
as those of V. vinifera, while the same organs in other species, 
as in most American grapes, are hard and fibrous. They may 
also be few or numerous, deep or shallow, spreading or restricted, 
fibrous or non-fibrous. The structure of the root thus becomes 
important in distinguishing species. 

The stem. 

Stem or trunk : The unbranehed main axis of the plant above 
ground. 

Branches or arms : Main divisions of the trunk. 

Head : The region from which branches arise. 

Old wood: Parts of the vine older than one year. 

Canes: Wood of the current season. 

Spurs : Short pieces of the bases of canes ; usually one or two nodes 
with a bud each. 

Renewal spurs : Spurs left to bear canes the following year. 

Shoots: Newly developed succulent stems with their leaves. 

Fruit-shoots : Flower and fruit-bearing shoots. 

Wood-shoots: Shoots which bear leaves only. 

Laterals: Secondary shoots arising from main shoots. 

Water sprouts: Shoots arising from adventitious buds. 

Suckers : Shoots arising from below ground. 

Nodes : Joints in the stem from which leaves are or may be borne. 

Internodes : The part between two nodes. 

Diaphragm : The woody tissue which interrupts the pith at the node. 

Bloom : The powdery coating on the cane. 

Tendril: The coiled, thread-like organ by which the vine grasps an 
object and clings to it. 



302 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Species of grapes have very characteristic vines. A glance 
at a vine enables one to tell the European grape from any of 
the American grapes ; so, also, one is able to distinguish most of 
the American species by the aspect of the vine. ]Many varieties 
of any species of grape are readily told by the size and habits 
of the plant. Size of vine is rather more variable than other 
gross characters because of the influence of environment, such 
as food, moisture, light, isolation and pests; yet, size in a 
plant or the parts of a plant is a very reliable character when 
proper allowances are made for environment. 

The degree of hardiness is a very important diagnostic char- 
acter in determining both species and varieties of grapes and 
very largely indicates their value for the vineyard. Thus, the 
varieties of the European grape are less hardy than the peach, 
while our American Labruscas and Vulpinas are as hardy as 
the apple. The range of varieties as to hardiness falls within 
that of the species, and cultivated \'arieties hardier than the 
wild grape are not found. Grapes are designated in descrip- 
tions of varieties and species as hardy, half-hardy and tender. 

Habit of growth varies but little with changing conditions 
and is thus an important means of distinguishing species and 
varieties and not infrequently stamps the variety as fit or unfit 
for the vineyard. Habit of growth gives aspect to the vine. 
Thus, a vine may be upright, drooping, horizontal, stocky, 
straggling, spreading, dense or open. The vine may grow 
rapidly or. slowly and may be long-lived or short-lived; the 
trunk may be short and stocky or long and slender. These 
several characters largely determine whether a vine is man- 
ageable in the vineyard. Productiveness, age of bearing and 
regularity of bearing are distinctive characters with cultivated 
grapes. The care given the vine influences these characters ; 
yet all are helpful in identifying species and varieties and all 
must be considered by the grape-grower. 

Immunity and susceptibility to diseases and insects are 



GRAPE BOTANY 303 

most valuable diagnostic characters of species and varieties of 
grapes. Thus, species difTer widely in resistance to phylloxera, 
the grape-louse, to the grape leaf-hopper, the flea-beetle, 
berry-moth, root-worm, powdery-mildew, downy-mildew, an- 
thracnose and other insect and fungous troubles of this fruit. 

The structure of the bark is an important distinguishing 
character for some species, but is of little importance in 
identifying the variety and has no economic value to the 
fruit-grower. In most species of grapes, the bark has distinct 
lenticels and on the old wood separates in long thin strips 
and fibers; but in two species from southeastern North 
America, the bark bears prominent lenticels and never shreds. 
Smoothness, color and thickness are other attributes of the 
bark to be noted. 

Canes of different species vary greatly in total length and 
in length of internodes. They vary also in size, in number 
and in color, while the shape in some species is quite distinctive, 
being in some round, in others angular and in still others flat- 
tened. The direction of growth in canes, whether sinuous, 
straight or zigzag, is an important character. Nodes and 
internodes are indicative characters in some species, being 
more or less prominent, angular or flattened, while the inter- 
nodes are long or short. 

The diaphragm distinguishes several species of grapes. The 
cane contains a large pith and this in most species is in- 
terrupted by woody tissue, forming a diaphragm at the nodes. 
In the Rotundifolia grapes the diaphragm is absent, while in 
several other American species it is very thin and in still 
others quite thick. The character of the diaphragm is best 
observed in year-old canes. In studying the diaphragm, 
notice should be taken also of the pith, which is very variable 
in size. 

Young shoots of the grape ofter a ready means of distinguish- 
ing species and varieties through their color and the amount 



304 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

and character of the pubescence. Shoots may be glabrous, 
pubescent or hairy and even spiny. 

The tendril is one of the organs most used in determining 
species and varieties of grapes. In some species, as V . Labrusca, 
there is a tendril or an inflorescence opposite nearly every leaf, 
continuous tendrils. All other species have two leaves with a 
tendril opposite each and a third leaf without a tendril, inter- 
mittent tendrils. To study this organ it is necessary to have 
vigorous, healthy, typical canes. Tendrils may be long or 
short, stout or slender ; simple, bifurcated or trifurcated ; or 
smooth, pubescent or warty. 

The number of inflorescences borne by species is an impor- 
tant character in some cases. All species, excepting F. Labrusca, 
average two inflorescences to a cane, but F. Labrusca may 
bear from three to six inflorescences, each in the place of a 
tendril opposite the leaf. 

The bud. 

Bud: An undeveloped shoot. 

Fruit-hud: A bud in which a shoot bearing flowers originates. 
Wood-bud : A bud in which a shoot bearing only leaves originates. 
Latent bud: A bud which remains dormant for one or more seasons. 
Adventitious bud: A bud arising elsewhere than the normal position 
at a node. 

Eye: A compound bud. 

Main bud: The central bud of an eye. 

Secondary hud: The lateral bud of an eye. 

Buds of different species of grapes vary greatly in time of 
opening as they do somewhat in varieties, so that the time the 
buds begin to swell is a fine mark of distinction. The angle at 
which the bud stands out from the l)ranch is of some value in 
determining species. Differences in color, size, shape, position 
and amount of pubescence of buds must all be noted in describ- 
ing grapes. The scales of the buds vary more or less in size 
and in thickness. 



OR APE BOTANY 



305 



The flower. 

Stnminate: Having stamens and not pistils; a male flower. 

Pistillate: Having pistils and not stamens; a female flower. 

Dioecinus: Said when the stamens are on one plant and the pistils on 
another. 

Pnlyganwus: Said when flowers on a plant are in part perfect 
(having both stamens and pistils) while others are staminate or pistillate. 

Hermaphrodite: Said of a flower having both stamens and pistils. 

Fertile: Said of a flower capable of bearing seed without pollen from 
another flower. 

Sterile: Said of a flower without or with abortive pistils. 

Perfect: Said of a flower having both stamens and pistils. 

Imperfect: Said of a flower wanting either stamens or pistils. 

Peduncle: The stalk of a flower-cluster. 

Pedicel: The stalk of each particular flower. 



The time of bloom is an easy mark of distinction between 
several species of grapes and helps to distinguish varieties in a 
species as well. JNIost species of grapes bear fertile flowers on 
one vine and sterile flowers on another 
and are, therefore, polygamous-dioecious. 
Sterile vines bear male flowers with abortive 
pistils so that, while they never produce 
fruits themselves, they usually assist in 
fertilizing others. Fertile flowers are capa- 
ble of ripening fruits without cross-pollina- 
tion. Vines with female flowers only are 
seldom found. In most species of the 
grape, plants with sterile flowers and those 
with complete flowers are found mixed in 
the wild state, but usually only the fertile 
plants have been selected for cultivation. 
Plants raised from seeds of any of the spe- 
cies, however, furnish many sterile vines. 

The degree of fertility of blossoms is also a fine mark of dis- 
tinction in species and varieties of the grape. Fertile vines are 
of two kinds in most species. The flowers on one kind are per- 




n 

Fig. 53. The grape 
flower. I. Opening bud 
showing the way in 
which the cap becomes 
loosened at the base. 
II. Diagrammatic illus- 
tration of grape stamens. 



306 



MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 



feet hermaphrodites, while in the other kind the stamens are 
smaller and shorter than the pistil and eventually bent down 
and curved under. The two kinds of stamens are shown in 
Figs. 53 and 54. These may be called imperfect hermaphro- 
dites since they are seldom as fruitful as the perfect hermaph- 
rodites unless fertilized from another plant. Examined with 




Fig. 54. Grape flowers. Left, upright stamens of Delaware ; right, de- 
pressed stamens of Brighton. 

a microscope, it is found that self-sterile plants usually bear 
abortive pollen and that the percentage of abortive pollen 
grains varies greatly in different varieties. The upright or 
depressed stamen does not always indicate the condition of the 
pollen, since there are many instances in which upright stamens 
bear impotent pollen and occasionally the depressed stamens 
bear perfect pollen. 

The leaf. 

Blade : The expanded portion of the leaf. 

Lobe : The more or less rounded division of the leaf. 

Si7ius : The recess or bay between two lobes. 



GRAPE BOTANY 307 

Petiole: The leaf-stalk. 

Petiolar sinus: The siuus aljout the petiole. 

Basal sinuses: The two sinuses toward the base of the blade. 

Lateral sinuses: The two sinuses toward the apex of the blade. 

The size, shape and color of the leaves are quite distinctive 
of species and more or less so of varieties, if allowances are 
made for variation ilue to en\'ironment. Tlie lobing of leaves 
is a ^•ery uniform character in most species, some having lobes 
and others having entire leaves. The upper surface of the leaf 
in some species is smooth, glossy and shiny and in others is 
rough and dull. The lower surface shows similar variations 
and has, besides, varying amounts of pubescence, down and 
bloom. In some species the down resembles cobwebs. The 
number, size and shape of the lobes are important in distinguish- 
ing both varieties and species, as are also the petiolar, basal and 
lateral sinuses. As in most plants, the margins of the leaves, 
whether serrate, dentate or crenate, are often distinguishing char- 
acters. The petiole in different species varies from short to 
long and from stout to slender. Lastly, the time at which the 
leaves fall is often a good distinguishing mark. 

The fruit. 

Peduncle and pedicel : Defined as in flower. 

Brush : The end of the pedicel projecting into the fruit 

Base : The point of attachment of bunch or berry. 

Apex: The point opposite the base. 

Bloom : The powdery coating on the fruit. 

Pigment: The coloring matter in the skin. 

Quality : The combination of characters that makes grapes pleasant 
to the palate, sight, smell and touch. 

Foxiness: The rancid taste and smell of some grapes which are 
similar to the efflu\aum of a fox. 

Of all organs the fruit is most responsive to changed condi- 
tions and hence most variable. Yet the fruits furnish most 
valuable characters for determining both species and varieties. 
Size, shape, compactness and the number of clusters on a shoot 



308 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

must be noted. Coming to the berry, size, shape, color, bloom, 
adherence of stigma to the apex and adhesion of fruit to the 
pedicel are all of value. Difference in adherence of the skin to 
the pulp separates European from all American grapes. The 
thickness, toughness, flavor and pigment of the skin have more 
or less value. The color, firmness, juiciness, aroma and flavor 
of the flesh, as well as its adherence to seed and skin, are val- 
uable marks in describing grapes. All species and varieties are 
well distinguished by the time of ripening and by keeping 
quality. The color of the juice is a plain and certain dividing 
line between some species and many varieties. 

The seed. 

Beak: The narrow prolonged base of the seed. 

Hiluin : The scar left where the seed was attached to the seed-stalk. 
Chulaza: The place where the seed-coats and kernel are connected. 
Raphe : The line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the ehalaza. 

Seeds are accounted of much value in determining species. 
The size and weight of seed differ greatly in different species, 
as they do also in varieties of any one species. Thus, of native 
grapes, Labrusca has the largest and heaviest seeds and Vul- 
pina has the smallest seed, while those of iEstivalis are of 
medium size and weight. The shape and color of seed offer 
distinguishing marks, while the size, shape and position of the 
raphe and ehalaza furnish very certain marks of distinction in 
some species. 

The Genus Vitis 

The genus Vitis belongs to the vine family (Vitaceae) in which 
most botanists also put the wood-vines (Ampelopsis), of which 
Virginia creeper is the best-known plant. The genus Cissus, 
to which belong many southern climbers, is combined with 
^^itis by some Ijotanists. Vitis is separated from Ampelopsis 
and Cissus by marked differences in several organs, of which, 



GRAPE BOTANY 309 

liorticulturally at least, those in the fruit best serve to dis- 
tinguish tlie group. Species of Vitis, with possibly one or two 
exceptions, bear pulpy edible fruits ; species of Ampelopsis and 
Cissus bear fruits with pulp so scant that the berries are in- 
edible. Mtis is further distinguished as follows : The plants 
are climbing or trailing, rarely shrubby, with woody stems and 
mostly with coiling, naked-tipped tendrils. The leaves are 
simple, palmately lobed, round-dentate or heart-shaped-den- 
tate. The stipules are small, falling early. The flowers are 
polygamo-dioecious (some plants with perfect flowers, others 
staminate with at most a rudimentary ovary), five-parted. 
The petals are separated only at the base and fall off without 
expanding. The disk is hypogynous with five nectariferous 
glands which are alternate with the stamens. The berry is 
globose or ovoid, few-seeded and pulpy. The seeds are pyri- 
form and beak-like at the base. 

Species of American Grapes 

The number of species of grapes in the world depends on the 
arbitrary limits set for a species of this fruit, and knowledge of the 
genus is yet too meager to set these limits with certainty. In- 
deed, the men who have made grape species have seldom been 
able to outline the habitats of their groups with much cer- 
tainty. In habitat, it should be said, grapes are confined 
almost wholly to temperate and subtropical regions. How- 
ever, the grape-grower is not much concerned with species 
of grapes other than those that have horticultural value. Of 
these, in America, there are now ten more or less cultivated 
either for fruit or for stocks. The following descriptions of 
these ten species are adapted from the author's The Grapes 
of New York, published in 1908 by the state of New York 
(Chapter IV, pages 107-156). 



310 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

CONSPECTUS OF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF VITIS 

A. Skin of mature berry separating freely from the pulp. 
B. Nodes M'ithout diaplu'agms ; tendrils simple. 

1. V. rotundifolia. 

2. V. Munsoniana. 
BB. Nodes with diaphragms ; tendrils forked. 

C. Leaves and shoots glabrous at maturity and without 
bloom ; tendrils intermittent. 

D. Leaves thin, light, bright green, generally glabrous 
below at maturity except perhaps in the axils 
of the veins with a long or at least a prominent 
point and usually long and sharp teeth or the 
edge even-jagged. 

E. Leaves broader than long ; petiolar sinus 
usually wide and shallow. 

3. V. rupestris. 
EE. Leaves ovate in outline ; petiolar sinus 

usuallj^ medium to narrow. 

4. V. vulpina. 
DD. Leaves thick, dull colored or grayish-green, often 

holding some close, dull pubescence below at 
maturity, shoots and leaves nearly always 
more or less pubescent when young ; the 

teeth mostly short 5. V. cordifolia. 

6. V. Berlandieri. 
CC. Leaves rusty or Avhite tomentose or glaucous blue 
below, thick or at least firm. 
D. Leaves flocculent or cobwebby or glaucous 

below when fully grown 7. V. cestivalis. 

8. V. bicolor. 
DD. Leaves densely tomentose or felt-like beneath 
throughout the season ; covering white or 
rusty white. 

E. Tendrils intermittent 9. V. candicans. 

EE. Tendrils mostly continuous. 

10. V. Labrusca. 
A A. Skin and pulp of matm-e berry cohering. (Old World.) 

11. V. vinifera. 

1. Viti9 rotund ifolia,Michx. Muscadine Grape. Bull Grape. 
Bullet Grape. Bushy Grape. Bullace Grape. Scuppernong. 
Southern Fox- Grape. 

Vine very vigorous, sometimes, when without support, shrubby 
and only three or four feet high ; when growing in the shade often send- 



GRAPE BOTANY 311 

ing down aerial roots. Wood hard, bark smooth, not scaling, with 
prominent warty lentieels ; shoots short-jointed, angled, with fine 
scurfy pubescence ; diaphragms absent ; tendrils intermittent, simple. 
Leaves small, lu-oadly cordate or roundish ; petiolar sinus wde, 
shallow ; margin with obtuse, wide teeth ; not lobed ; dense in texture, 
light gi-een color, glabrous above, sometimes pubescent along veins 
below. Cluster small (6-24 berries), loose; peduncle short ; pedicels 
short, thick. Berries large, globular or somewhat oblate, black or 
greenish-yellow ; skin thick, tough and mth a musky odor ; pulp 
tough ; ripening unevenly and dropping as soon as ripe. Seeds 
flattened, shallowly and broadly notched ; beak very short ; chalaza 
narrow, slightly depressed with radiating ridges and furrows ; raphe a 
narrow groove. Leafing, flowering and ripening fruit very late. 

The habitat of this species is southern Delaware, west through 
Tennessee, southern IlUnois, southeastern ^Missouri, Arkansas 
(except the northwestern portions), to Grayson County, Texas, 
as a northern and western boundary, to the Atlantic Ocean and 
the Gulf on the east and south. It becomes rare as one ap- 
proaches the western limit but is common in many sections of 
the great region outlined above, being most abundant on sandy, 
well-drained bottom lands and along river banks and in swampy, 
thick woodlands and thickets. The climate most suitable for 
Rotundifolia is that in which cotton grows, and it thrives best 
in the lower portions of the cotton-belt of the United States. 

The fruit of Rotundifolia is very characteristic. The skin 
is thick, has a leathery appearance, adheres strongly to the 
underlying flesh and is marked with lenticel-like russet dots. 
The flesh is more or less tough but the toughness is not localized 
around the seed as in the case of Labrusca. The fruit and 
most of the varieties of the species are characterized by a strong, 
musky aroma and are lacking in sugar and acid. Some varieties 
yield over four gallons of must to the bushel. Wine-makers 
are divided in opinion as to its value for wine-making, but at 
present the most promising outlook for Rotundifolia varieties 
is as wine, grape-juice and culinary grapes. Rotundifolia does 
not produce fruit suitable for shipping as dessert grapes chiefly 
because the berries ripen une\'enly and when ripe drop from the 



312 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

cluster. The common method of gathering the fruit of this 
species is to shake the vines at intervals so that the ripe berries 
drop on sheets spread below the vines. The juice which ex- 
udes from the point where the stem is broken off causes the 
berries to become smeared and gives them an unattractive 
appearance. Owing, however, to the tough skin, the berries 
do not crack as badl}' as other grapes w ould under the same con- 
ditions, but nevertheless they are not adapted to long-dis- 
tance shipments. Under reasonably favorable conditions, the 
vines attain great age and size and when grown on arbors, as 
they often are, and without pruning, they cover a large area. 
Rotundifolia is remarkably resistant to the attacks of all 
insects and to fungal diseases. The phylloxera do not attack 
its roots and it is considered as resistant as any other, if not 
the most resistant of all American species. The vines are 
grown from cuttings only with difficulty and this prevents the 
use of this species as a resistant stock. However, under 
favorable circumstances, and with skillful handling, this is a 
successful method of propagation, lender unfavorable cir- 
cumstances, or w^hen only a few vines are desired, it is better 
to depend on layers. As a stock upon which to graft other 
vines, this species has not been a success. There is great dif- 
ficulty in crossing Rotundifolia with other species, but several 
Rotundifolia hybrids are now on record. 

2. J'itis Munsoniana, Simpson. Florida Grape. Ever- 
bearing grape. Bird Grape. Mustang Grape of Florida. 

Vine slender, usually running on the ground or over low bushes. 
Canes angular ; internodes short ; tendrils intermittent, simple. 
Leaves smaller and thinner than Rotundifolia and rather more circular 
in outline ; not lobed ; teeth open and spreading ; petiolar sinus 
V-shaped ; both surfaces smooth, rather light green. Cluster with 
more berries but about the same size as in Rotundifolia. Berry one- 
third to one-half the diameter, with thinner and more tender skin; 
black, shining ; pulp less solid, more acid and without muskiness. 



GRAPE BOTANY 313 

Seeds about one-half the size of tlaose of RotundifoHa, similar in other 
respects. Leafing, flowering and ripening fruit very late. 

The habitat of V. Mmuoniana is central and southern Florida 
and the Florida Keys. It extends south of the habitat of Ro- 
tundifoHa and blends into this species at their point of meet- 
ing. Munsoniana appears to be a variation of RotundifoHa, 
fitted to subtropical conditions. It is tender, not enduring a 
lower temperature than zero. In the matter of multiplication, 
it differs from T". rotundifolia in that it can be propagated readily 
from cuttings. Like Rotimdifolia it is resistant to phylloxera. 

3. Vitis rupestris, Scheele. Mountain Grape. Rock Grape. 
Bush Grape. Sand Grape. Sugar Grape. Beach Grape. 

A small, much branched shrub or, under favorable circumstances, 
climbing. Diaphragm thin ; tendrils few, or if present, weak, usually 
deciduous. Leaves small ; young leaves frequently folded on midrib ; 
broadly cordate or reniform, wider than long, scarcely ever lobed, 
smooth, glabrous on both surfaces at maturity ; petiolar sinus wide, 
shallow; margin coarsely toothed, frequently a sharp, abrupt point 
at terminal. Cluster small. Berries small, black or purple-black. 
Seeds small, not notched ; beak short, blunt ; raphe distinct to indis- 
tinct, usually shoAving as a narrow groove; chalaza, pear-shaped, 
sometimes distinct, but usually a depression only. Leafing, blossom- 
ing and ripening early. 

This species is an inhabitant of southwestern Texas, extend- 
ing eastward and northward into New INIexico, southern Mis- 
souri, Indiana and Tennessee to southern Pennsylvania and the 
District of Columbia. Its favorite places are gravelly banks 
and bars of mountain streams or the rocky beds of dry water- 
courses. This species is rather variable both in type and 
growth. It was introduced into France at about the same time 
as Valpina, and the French vineyardists selected the most 
vigorous and healthy forms for grafting stock. These pass 
under the various names of Rupestris Mission, Rupestris du 
Lot, Rupestris Ganzin, Rupestris Martin, Rupestris St. George 



314 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

and others. In France, these varieties have given particnlarly 
good results on bare, rocky soils with hot, dry exposures. In 
CaHfornia, Rupestris does not flourish in dry locations, and as 
it suckers profusely and does not take the graft as readily as 
Vulpina and ^Estivalis, it is not largely propagated. 

The clusters of fruit are small, with berries about the size 
of a currant and varying from sweet to sour. The berry is 
characterized by much pigment under the skin. The fruit 
has a sprightly taste wholly free from any disagreeable foxiness. 
Rupestris under cultivation is said to be very resistant to rot 
and mildew of the foliage. The vine is considered hardy in 
the Southwest. The attention of hybridizers was attracted 
to this species over thirty years ago, and various hybrids have 
been produced of great promise for grape-breeding. The root 
system of Rupestris is peculiar in that the roots penetrate at 
once deeply into the ground instead of extending laterally as 
in other species. Like those of Vulpina, the roots are slender, 
hard and resistant to phylloxera. The species is easily propa- 
gated by cuttings. The vines bench-graft readily but are 
difficult to handle in field grafting. 

4. Vitis vulpina, Linn, (T^. riparia, INIichx.). Winter 
Grape. River Grape. Riverside Grape. Riverbank Grape. 
Sweet-scented Grape. 

Vine very vigorous, climbing. Shoots cylindrical or angled, usually 
smooth, slender ; diapliragms thin ; tendrils intermittent, slender, 
usually bifid. Leaves with large stipules ; leaf-blade large, thin, 
entire, three- or lower ones often five-lobed ; sinuses shallow, angular ; 
petiolar sinus broad, usually' shallow ; margin with incised, sharply 
serrate teeth of variable size ; light gj-een, glabrous above, glabrous 
but sometimes pubescent on ribs and veins below. Cluster small, 
compact, shouldered ; peduncle short. Berries small, black with a 
heavy blue bloom. Seeds two to four, small, notched, short, plump, 
with very short beak ; ehalaza narrowly oval, depressed, indistinct ; 
raphe usually a groove, sometimes distinct. Very variable in flavor 
and time of ripening. 



GRAPE BOTANY 315 

Viilpina is the most widely distributed of an}- American species 
of grape. It has been discovered in parts of Canada north of 
Quebec and from thence southward to the Gulf of Mexico. It 
is found from the Atlantic coast westward, most botanists say, 
to the Rocky Mountains. Usually it grows on river banks, on 
islands or in upland ravines. Vulpina has always been con- 
sidered of great promise in the evolution of American grapes. 
It can hardly be said that it has fulfilled expectations, there 
probably being no pure variety of this species of more than local 
importance, and the results of hybridizing it wdth other species 
have not been wholly successful. Attention w^as early turned 
to Vulpina because of the qualities presented by the vine 
rather than those of the fruit, particularly its hardiness and 
vigor. However, both of these qualities are rather variable, 
although it is only reasonable to suppose that in such a widely 
distributed species, plants found in a certain region would have 
adapted themselves to the conditions there present; thus, it 
should be expected that the northern plants would be more 
hardy than those from the South, and that the western prairie 
forms w^ould be more capable of resisting drouth than those 
from humid regions. It is, consequently, impossible to say what 
conditions best suit this species. It may be said, however, that 
Vulpina is adapted to a great variety of soils and locations ; 
vines have withstood a temperature of 40 to 60 degrees below 
zero and they show equal ability in withstanding the injurious 
effects of high temperatures in the summer. On account of its 
habit of early blooming, the blossoms sometimes suffer from 
late frosts in the spring. 

While Vulpina is not a swamp grape and is not found grow- 
ing under swampy conditions, it is fond of water. In the semi- 
arid regions always, and in humid regions usually, it is found 
growing along the banks of streams, in ravines, on the islands 
of rivers and in wet places. It is not nearly so capable of with- 
standing drouth as Rupestris. Vulpina likes a rather rich soil, 



316 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

but in France has been found to do poorly on limestone land 
and calcareous marls. The French tell us, however, that this 
is a characteristic of all our American grapes, and that Vulpina 
is more resistant to the injurious effects of an excess of lime than 
either Rupestris or ^Estivalis. 

The fruit of Vulpina is usually small, there being occasional 
varieties of medium size or above. The clusters are of medium 
size and, if judged from the standpoint of number of berries, 
might frequently be called large. The flavor is usually sharply 
acid but free from foxiness or any disagreeable wild taste. If 
eaten in quantity, the acidity is likely to affect the lips and 
end of the tongue. When the acidity is somewhat ameliorated, 
as in the case of thoroughly ripe or even over-ripe and shriveled 
fruit, the flavor is much liked. The flesh is neither pulpy nor 
solid and dissolves in the mouth and separates readily from the 
seed. The must of Vulpina is characterized by an average 
amount of sugar, varying considerably in the fruit from differ- 
ent vines, and by an excess of acid. 

Vulpina is very resistant to phylloxera, the roots are small, 
hard, numerous and branch freely.. The roots feed close to 
the surface and do not seem to be well adapted to forcing their 
way through heavy clays. Vulpina grows readily from cuttings 
and makes a good stock for grafting, its union with other species 
being usually permanent. When Vidpinas were first sent to 
France to be used as a stock in reconstituting the French vine- 
yards, it was found that many of the vines secured from the 
woods were too weak in growth to support the stronger-groAving 
Viniferas. On this account the French growers selected the 
more vigorous forms of the Vulplnas,t() which they gave varietal 
names, as Vulpina (xloire, Vulpina Grand Glabre, Vulpina Schrib- 
ner, Vulpina ]\Iartiii and others. With these selected Vulpinas, 
the graft does not outgrow the stock. Vulpina is less resistant 
to black-rot than .F^stivalis but somewhat more resistant than 
Labrusca. The foliage is rarely attacked by mildew. One of 



GRAPE BOTANY 317 

the chief faiHngs of this species is the susceptibihty of the 
leaves to the attack of the leaf-hopper. The Vulpinas are 
generally late in ripening ; the frnit is better in quality in long 
seasons and should be left on the vines as late as possible. 

5. J^itis cordifolia, Michx. Winter Grape. Frost Grape. 
Fox Grape. Chicken Grape. Heart-leaved Vitis. Possum 
Grape. Sour Winter Grape. 

Vine very vigorous, climbing. Shoots slender ; internodes long, 
angular, usually glabrous, sometimes pubescent ; diaphragms thick ; 
tendrils intermittent, long, usually bifid. Leaves with short, broad 
stipules ; leaf-blade medium to large, cordate, entire or indistinctly 
tlu-ee-lobed ; petiolar sinus deep, usually naiTow, acute ; margin with 
coarse angular teeth ; point of leaf acuminate ; upper surface light 
green, glossy, glabrous ; glabrous or sparingly pubescent below. 
Clusters medium to large, loose, with long peduncle. Ben-ies numerous 
and small, black, sliining, little or no bloom. Seeds medium in size, 
broad, beak short ; chalaza oval or roundish, elevated, very distinct ; 
raphe a distinct, cord-like ridge. Fruit sour and astringent and 
frequently consisting of little besides sldns and seeds. Leafing, 
flowering and ripening fruit very late. 

Owing to the fact that Cordifolia and Vulpina have been 
badly confused, the limits of the habitat of this species are 
difficult to determine. The best authorities gi\'e the northern 
limit as New York t)r the Great Lakes. The eastern limit is 
the Atlantic Ocean and the southern limit, the Gulf of Mexico. 
It extends westward, according to Engelmann, to the western 
limits of the wooded portion of the Mississippi Valley in the 
North, and, according to Munson, to the Brazos River, Texas, 
in the South. It is foimd along creeks and river banks some- 
times mixed with Vulpina, having about the same soil adapta- 
tions as that species. It is a very common species in the 
middle states and frequently grows on limestone soils, but 
is not indigenous to such soils. 

Cordifolia makes a good stock for grafting, being vigorous 
and forming a good union with most of our cultivated grapes. 



318 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

It is seldom used for this purpose, however, on account of the 
difficulty of propagating it by means of cuttings. For the 
same reason vines of it are seldom found in cultivation. 

6. Vitis Berlandieri, Planch, Moiuitain Grape. Spanish 
Grape. Fall Grape. Winter Grape. Little INIountain Grape. 

Vine vigorous, climbing ; shoots more or less angled and pubescent ; 
pubescence remaining only in patches on mature wood ; canes mostly 
with short internodes ; diaphragms thick ; tendrils intermittent, long, 
strong, bifid or trifid. Leaves with small stipules ; leaf -blade large, 
broadly cordate, notched or shortly thi-ee-lobed ; petiolar sinus rather 
open, V- or U-shaped, margin with broad but rather shallow teeth, 
rather dark glossy green above, grayish pubescence below when 
young ; becoming glabrous and even glossy except on ribs and veins, 
when mature. Clusters large, compact, compound, with long peduncle. 
Berries small, black, wdtli thin bloom, juicy, rather tart but pleasant 
tasting when thoroughly ripe. Seeds few, small, short, plump, oval 
or roundish, with short beak ; chalaza oval or roundish, distinct ; 
raphe narrow, slightly distinct to indistinct. Leafing, flowering and 
ripening fruit very late. 

Berlandieri is a native of the limestone hills of southwest 
Texas and adjacent Mexico. It grows in the same region with 
V. monticola, but is less restricted locally, growing from the 
tops of the hills down and along the creek bottoms of these 
regions. Its great virtue is that it withstands a soil largely 
composed of lime, being superior to all other American species 
in this respect. This and its moderate degree of vigor have 
recommended it to the French growers as a stock for their cal- 
careous soils. The roots are strong, thick, and very resistant 
to phylloxera. It is propagated by cuttings with comparative 
ease, but its varieties are variable, some not rooting at all 
easily. While the fruit of this species shows a large cluster, 
the berries are small and sour, and Berlandieri is not regarded 
as having promise for culture in America. 

7. Vitis cestivalis, Michx. Blue Grape. Bunch Grape. 
Summer Grape. Little Grape. Duck-shot Grape. Swamp 
Grape. Chicken Grape. Pigeon Grape. 



GRAPE BOTANY 319 

Vine very vigorous , shoots pubescent or smooth when young ; 
diiphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, usually bifid. Leaves with 
short, broad stipules ; leaf-blade large, thin when young but becoming 
thick ; petiolar sinus deep, usuallj' narrow, frequently overlapping ; 
margin rarely entire, usually three- to five-lobed ; teeth dentate, 
shallow, wide ; upper surface dark green ; lower surface ^vith more or 
less reddish or rusty pubescence which, in mature leaves, usually shows 
in patches on the ribs and veins ; petioles frequently pubescent. 
Clusters long, not much branched, with long peduncle. Berries small, 
^\ath moderate amount of bloom, usually astringent. Seeds two to 
three, of medium size, plump, smooth, not notched ; chalaza oval, 
distinct ; raphe a distinct cord-like ridge. Leafing and ripening fruit 
late to verj^ late. 

The division of the original species has reduced the habitat 
materially, confining it to the southeastern part of the United 
States from southern New York to Florida and westward to 
the Mississippi River. ifEstivalis grows in thickets and open- 
ings in the woods and shows no such fondness for streams as 
Vulpina, or for thick timber as Labrusca, but is generally con- 
fined to uplands. Under favorable circumstances, the vines 
grow to be very large. ^Estivalis is preeminently a wine grape. 
The fruit usually has a tart, acrid taste, due to the presence of 
a high percentage of acid, but there is also a large amount of 
sugar, the scale showing that juice from this species has a much 
higher percentage of sugar than the sweeter-tasting Labrusca s. 
The wine made from varieties of ^stivalis is ver}- rich in color- 
ing matter and is used by some European vintners to mix with 
the must of European sorts in order to give the combined 
product a higher color. The berries are destitute of pulp, 
have a comparatively thin, tough skin and a peculiar spicy 
flavor. The berries hang to the bunch after becoming ripe 
much better than do those of Labrusca. 

This species thrives in a lighter and shallower soil than 
Labrusca and appears to endure drought better, although not 
equaling in this respect either Vulpina or Rupestris. The 
French 'growers report that ^Estivalis is very liable to chlorosis 



320 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

on soils which contain much Hme. The leaves are never in- 
jured by the sun and they resist the attacks of insects, such as 
leaf-hoppers, better than any other American species under 
cultivation. ^Estivalis is rarely injured by black-rot or mildew, 
according to American experience, but French growers speak 
of its being susceptible to both. The hard roots of iEstivalis 
enable it to resist phylloxera, and varieties with any great 
amount of the blood of this species are seldom seriously injured 
by this insect. An objection to ^Estivalis, from a horticultural 
standpoint, is that it does not root well from cuttings. Many 
authorities speak of it as not rooting at all from cuttings, but 
this is an over-statement of the facts, as many of the wild and 
cultivated varieties are occasionally propagated in this manner, 
and some southern nurseries, located in particularly favorable 
situations, make a practice of propagating it by this method. 
Varieties of this species bear grafting well, especially in the 
vineyard. 

Vitis oBstualis Lincecumii, Munson. Post-oak Grape. 
Pine-wood Grape. Turkey Grape. 

Vine vigorous, sometimes climbing high upon trees, sometimes 
forming a bushy clump from two to six feet high ; canes cylindrical, 
much rusty wool on shoots ; tendrils intermittent. Leaves very large, 
almost as wide as long ; entire or three-, five-, or rarely seven-lobed ; 
lobes frequently divided; sinuses, including petiolar sinus, deep; 
smooth above, and with more or less rusty pubescence below. (The 
north-Texas, southwestern Missouri and northern Arkansas form 
shows little or no pubescence but has fine prickly spines at base of 
shoots and shows much blue bloom on shoots, canes and the under side 
of the leaves.) Fruit small to large, usually larger than typical ^s- 
tivalis, usually black, with heavy bloom. Seeds larger than ^Estivalis, 
pear-shaped ; chalaza roundish. 

Lincecumii inhabits the eastern half of Texas, western Loui- 
siana, Oklahoma, Arkansas and southern Missouri on .high 
sandy land, frequently climbing post-oak trees, hence the 
name, post-oak grape, by which it is locally known. 



GRAPE BOTANY 321 

Lincecumii has attracted considerable attention through 
the work of H. Jaeger and T. V. Mimson in domesticating it, 
both of whom considered it one of the most, if not the most, 
promising form from which to secure cultivated \'arieties for 
the Southwest. The qualities which recommend it are : First, 
vigor ; second, capacity to withstand rot and mildew' ; third, 
hardiness and capacity to endure hot and dry summers without 
injury ; fourth, the large cluster and berry which were found 
on certain of the wild vines. The fruit is characteristic because 
of its dense bloom, firm, yet tender texture and peculiar flavor. 
The cultivated varieties have given satisfaction in many sec- 
tions of the Central Western and Southern states. Like 
yEstivalis, it is difficult to propagate from cuttings. 

The north-Texas glaucous form of this variety mentioned in 
the technical description above is the F. cBstivaUs glauca of 
Bailey. This is the type of Lincecumii that Munson has used 
in breeding work. 

Iritis CBstivalis Bourquiniana, Bailey. Southern iEstivalis. 

Bourquiniana differs chiefly from the type in having thinner 
leaves ; the shoots and under side of the leaves are only 
slightly reddish-brown in color ; the pubescence usually dis- 
appears at maturity ; the leaves are more deeply lobed than 
is common in iEstivalis ; and the fruit is larger, sweeter and 
more juicy. Bourquiniana is known only in cultivation. 
The name was given by Munson, who ranks the group as a 
species. He includes therein many southern varieties* the 
most important of which are : Herbemont, Bertrand, Cun- 
ningham and Lenoir, grouped in the Herbemont section ; and 
Devereaux, Louisiana and Warren, in the Devereaux section. 
Munson has traced the history of this interesting group and 
states that it was brought from southern France to America 
over one hundred fifty years ago by the Bourquin family 
of Savannah, Georgia. Many botanists are of the opinion 



322 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

that Bourquiniana is a hybrid. The hybrid supposition is 
corroborated to a degree by the characters being more or less 
intermediate between the supposed parent species, and also 
by the fact that up to date no wild form of Bourquiniana has 
been found. The only northern variety of any importance 
supposed to have Bourquiniana blood is the Delaware, and in 
this variety only a fraction of Bourquiniana blood is presum- 
ably present. Bourquiniana can be propagated from cuttings 
more easily than the typical iEstivalis but not so readily as 
Labrusca, Vulpina or Vinifera. Many of the varieties of Bour- 
quiniana show a marked susceptibility to mildew and black- 
rot; in fact, the whole Herbemont group is much inferior in 
this respect to the Norton group of yEstivalis. The roots are 
somewhat hard, branch rather freely and are quite resistant 
to phylloxera. 

8. Vitis hicolor, Le Conte. Blue Grape. Northern Summer 
Grape. Northern iEstivalis. 

Vine vigorous, climbing ; shoots cylindrical or angled, with long 
internodes, generally glabrous, usually showing much blue bloom, 
sometimes spiny at base ; diaphragms thick ; tendrils intermittent, 
long, usually bifid. Leaves with short, broad stipules ; leaf-blade 
large ; roundish-cordate, usually three-, sometimes on older growth 
shallowly five-lobed, rarely entire ; petiolar sinus variable in depth, 
usually narrow ; margin irregularly dentate ; teeth acuminate ; gla- 
brous above, usually glabrous below and showing much blue bloom which 
sometimes disappears late in the season ; young leaves sometimes 
pubescent ; petioles very long. Cluster of medium size, compact, 
simple ; peduncle long. Berries small, black with much bloom, acid 
but pleasant tasting when ripe. Seeds small, plump, broadly oval, 
very short beak ; chalaza oval, raised, distinct ; raphe distinct, showing 
as a cord-like ridge. 

Bicolor is readily distinguished from iEstivalis by the ab- 
sence of the reddish pubescence and by blooming slightly later. 
The habitat of Bicolor is to the north of that of yEstivalis, oc- 
cupying the northeastern, whereas iEstivalis occupies the 



GRAPE BOTANY 323 

southeastern quarter of the United States, Like ^EstivaHs, 
this species is not confined to streams and river banks but 
frequently grows on higher kind also. It is found in north 
INIissouri, Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, Indiana, southern 
Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, New York, south- 
western Ontario, New Jersey and Maryland and by some 
botanists is reported as far south as western North Carolina 
and west Tennessee. 

The horticultural characters of Bicolor are much the same 
as those of ^Estivalis. About the only points of difference are 
that it is much hardier (some of the Wisconsin vines stand a 
temperature as low as 20 degrees below zero) ; it is said to be 
slightly less resistant to mildew and mqre resistant to phyl- 
loxera. Like iEstivalis, Bicolor does not thrive on limy soils 
and it is difficult to propagate from cuttings. The horticultural 
possibilities of Bicolor are probably much the same as those of 
yEstivalis, although many think it to be more promising for the 
North. It is as yet cultivated but little. Its chief defect for 
domestication is the small size of the fruit. 

9. Vitis candicans, Englem. Mustang Grape. 

Vine very vigorous, climbing ; shoots and petioles densely wooly, 
whitish or rusty ; diaphragm thick ; tendrils intermittent. Leaves 
with large stipules ; blade small, broadly cordate to reniform-ovate, 
entire or in young shoots and on young vines and sprouts usually 
deeply three- to five-, or even seven-lobed ; teeth shallow, sinuate ; 
petiolar sinus shallow, wide, sometimes lacking ; dull, slightly rugose 
above, dense whitish pubescence below. Clusters small. Berries 
medium to large, black, purple, green, or even whitish, thin blue bloom 
or bloomless. Seeds usually three or four, large, short, plump, blunt, 
notched ; chalaza oval, depressed, indistinct ; raphe a broad groove. 

The habitat of this grape extends from southern Oklahoma, 
as a northern limit, southwesterly into Mexico. The western 
boundary is the Pecos River. It is found on dry, alluvial, 
sand^' or limestone bottoms or on limestone bluff lands and is 



324 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

said to be especially abundant along upland ravines. Candi- 
cans grows well on limestone lands, enduring as much as 60 per 
cent of carbonate of lime in the soil. The species blooms shortly 
before Labrusca and a week later than Vulpina. It requires 
the long hot summers of its native country and will stand ex- 
treme drouth but is not hardy to cold, 10 or 15 degrees below 
zero killing the vine outright unless protected ; and a lesser 
degree of cold injuring it severely. The berries, which are 
large for wild vines, have thin skins under which there is a pig- 
ment which gives them, when first ripe, a fiery, pungent taste 
but which partly disappears with maturity. The berries are 
very persistent, clinging to the pedicel long after ripe. Candi- 
cans is difficult to propagate from cuttings. Its roots resist 
phylloxera fairly well. It makes a good stock for Vinifera vines 
in its native country, but owing to the difficulty of propagation 
is seldom used for that purpose. In the early days of Texas, 
it was much used for the making of wine but as it is deficient 
in sugar, and as the must retains the acrid, pungent flavor, it 
does not seem to be well adapted for this purpose. It is not 
regarded as having great promise for southern horticulture 
and certainly has none for the North. 

10. Vitis Labrusca, Linn. Fox-Grape. 

Vine vigorous, stocky, climbing ; shoots cylindrical, densely pubes- 
cent ; diapliragms medium to thick ; tendrils continuous, strong, 
bifid or trifid. Leaves with long, cordate stipules ; leaf-blade large, 
thick, broadly cordate or round ; entire or tliree-lobed, frequently 
notched ; sinuses rounded ; petiolar sinus variable in depth and width, 
V-shaped ; margin with shallow, acute-pointed, scalloped teeth ; upper 
surface rugose, dark green, on young leaves pubescent, becoming 
glabrous when mature ; lower surface covered with dense pubescence, 
more or less whitish on young leaves, becoming dun-colored when 
mature. Clusters more or less compound, usually shouldered, com- 
pact ; pedicels thick ; peduncle short. Berries round ; skin thick, 
covered with bloom, with strong musky or foxy aroma. Seeds two 
to four, large, distinctly notched, beak short; ehalaza oval in shape 
indistinct, showing as a depression ; raphe, a groove. 



GRAPE BOTANY 325 

Labriisca is indigenous to the eastern part of North America, 
including the region between the Atlantic Ocean and the 
Alleghany Mountains. It is sometimes found in the valleys 
and along the western slopes of the Alleghanies. Many botan- 
ists say it never occurs in the Mississippi Valley. In the first- 
named area it ranges from Maine to Georgia. It has the most 
restricted habitat of anj- American species of horticultural im- 
portance, being much exceeded in extent of territory by V. 
rotundifolia, T'. cBstivalis and V. vulpina. 

Labrusca has furnished more cultivated varieties, either pure- 
breeds or hybrids, than all other American species together. 
The reason for this is partly, no doubt, that it is native to the 
portion of the United States first settled and is the most com- 
mon grape in the region where agriculture first advanced to 
the condition at which fruits were desired. This does not 
wholly account for its prominence, however, which must be 
sought elsewhere. In its wild state, Labrusca is probably the 
most attractive to the eye of any of our American grapes on 
account of the size of its fruit, and this undoubtedly turned the 
attention of those who Avere early interested in the possibilities 
of American grape-growing to this species rather than to any 
other. 

The southern Labrusca is quite different from the northern 
form and demands different conditions for its successful growth ; 
in the North, at least two types of the species may be dis- 
tinguished. Vines are found in the woods of New England 
which resemble Concord very closely in both vine and fruit, 
excepting that the grapes are much smaller in size and more 
seedy. There is also the large-fruited, foxy Labrusca, usually 
with reddish berries, represented by such cultivated varieties 
as Northern Muscadine, Dracut Amber, Lutie and others. 
Labrusca is peculiar amongst American grapes in show- 
ing black-, white- and red-fruited forms of wild vines 
growing in the woods. Because of this variability, it is im- 



326 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

possible to give the exact climatic and soil conditions best 
adapted to the species. It is reasonable to suppose, however, 
that the ideal conditions for this species under cultivation are 
not widely different from those prevailing where the species is 
indigenous. In the case of Labrusca, this means that it is 
best adapted to humid climates, and that the temperature de- 
sired varies according to whether the variety comes from the 
southern or northern form of the species. 

The root system of Labrusca does not penetrate the soil 
deeply, but the vine is said to succeed better in deep and clayey 
soils than iEstivalis. It endures an excess of water in the soil, 
and, on the other hand, requires less water for successful grow- 
ing than iEstivalis or Vulpina. In spite of its ability to with- 
stand clayey soils, it seems to prefer loose, warm, well-drained 
sandy lands to all others. The French growers report that all 
varieties of this species show a marked antipathy to a lime- 
stone soil, the vines soon becoming affected with chlorosis when 
planted in soils of this nature. In corroboration of this, it may 
be said that Labrusca is not often found wild in limestone soils. 
The Labruscas succeed very well in the North and fairly well 
in the IVIiddle West as far south as Arkansas, where they are 
raised on account of their fruit qualities, for here the vines 
are not nearly so vigorous and healthy as are those of other 
species. In Alabama, they are reported to be generally unsatis- 
factory, and in Texas the vines are short-lived, unhealthy, 
and generally unsatisfactory, particularly in the dry regions. 
There are some exceptions to this, as for instance, in the Pied- 
mont region of the Carolinas, where, owing to elevation or other 
^ causes, the climate of a southern region is semi-northern in its 
character. 

The grapes of Labrusca are large and usually handsomely 
colored. The skin is thick, covering a layer of adhering flesh, 
which gives the impression of its being thicker than it actually 
is; the berry is variable in tenderness, sometimes tough, but 



GRAPE BOTANY 327 

ill many cultivated varieties is so tender that it cracks in trans- 
portation. The skill of this species usually has a peculiar aroma, 
generally spoken of as foxy, and a slightly acid, astringent taste. 
Beneath the skin there is a layer of juicy pulp, quite sweet and 
never showing much acidity in ripe fruit. The center of the 
berry is occupied by rather dense pulp, more or less stringy, 
with considerable acid close to the seeds. Many object to the 
foxy aroma of this species, but, nevertheless, the most popular 
American varieties are more or less foxy. Analyses show 
that the fruit is usually characterized by a low percentage of 
sugar and acid, the very sweet-tasting fox-grapes not showing 
as high a sugar-content as some of the disagreeably tart iEsti- 
valis and Vulpina sorts. This, in addition to the foxiness which 
furnishes an excess of aroma hi the wine, has prevented Labrusca 
varieties from becoming favorites with the wine-makers, but 
most of the grape-juice now manufactured is made from them. 
In addition to the characters enumerated, it may be said that 
Labrusca submits well to vineyard culture, is fairly vigorous 
and generally quite productive. It grows readily from cuttings 
and in hardiness is intermediate between Vulpina, the hardiest 
of our American species, and ^Estivalis. The roots are soft 
and fleshy (for an American grape) and in some localities subject 
to attacks of phylloxera. None of the varieties of Labrusca 
has ever been popular in France on this account. In 
the wild vines, the fruit is inclined to drop when ripe. 
This defect is known as "shattering" or "shelling" among 
grape-growers and is a serious weakness in some varieties. 
Labrusca is said to be more sensitive in its wild state to mildew 
and black-rot than any other American species, but the evidence 
on this point does not seem to be wholly conclusive. In the 
South, and in some parts of the Middle West, the leaves of all 
varieties of Labrusca sunburn and shrivel in the latter part of 
the summer. The vines do not endure drouth as well as yEs- 
tivalis or Vulpina and not nearly so well as Rupestris. 



328 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

11. Vitis vinifera, Linn. 

Vine variable in vigor, not so high climbing as most American 
species; tendrils intermittent. Leaves round-cordate, thin, smooth, 
and when young, shining, frequently more or less deeply three-, five-, 
or even seven-lobed ; usually glabrous but in some varieties the leaves 
and young shoots are hairy and even downy when young ; lobes 
rounded or pointed ; teeth variable ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, 
usually overlapping. Berries very variable in size and color, usually 
oval though globular. Seeds variable in size and shape, usually 
notched at upper end and characterized always by a bottle-necked, 
elongated beak ; chalaza broad, usually rough, distinct ; raphe in- 
distinct. Roots large, soft and spongy. 

The original habitat of the species is not positively known. 
De Candolle, as noted in the first part of this work, considered 
the region about the Caspian Sea as the probable habitat of 
the Old World grape. There is but little doubt that the origi- 
nal home of V. vinifera is some place in western Asia. 

Neither American nor European writers agree as to the 
climate desired by Vinifera, for the reason, probably that all 
of the varieties in this variable species do not require the same 
climatic conditions. There are certain phases of climate, how- 
ever, that are well agreed on : the species requires a warm, dry 
climate and is more sensitive to change of temperature than 
American species. Varieties of this species can be grown suc- 
cessfully in a wide variety of soils, being much less particular 
as to soils than American sorts. 

Certain characters of the fruit of this species are not found 
in any American forms : First, the skin, which is attached very 
closely to the flesh and which is never astringent or acid, can 
be eaten with the fruit ; second, the flesh is firm, yet tender, 
and uniform throughout, differing in this respect from all 
American grapes which have a sweet, watery and tender pulp 
close to the skin with a tough and more or less acid core at 
the center ; third, the fla^'or has a peculiarly sprightly quality 
known as vinous; fourth, the berry adheres firmly to the 



GRAPE BOTANY 329 

pedicel, the fruit seldom "shattering" or "shelling" from 
the cluster. 

In the various hybrids that have been made between American 
and Vinifera varieties, it is usually found that the desirable 
qualities of Vinifera are inherited in about the same proportion 
as the undesirable ones. The fruit is improved in the hybrid 
but the vine is weakened ; quality is usually purchased at the 
expense of hardiness and disease-resisting power. Vinifera may 
be grown very readily from cuttings. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
VARIETIES OF GRAPES 

Nature has expended her bounties in fullest measure for 
the vineyard. More than 2000 varieties of grapes are de- 
scribed in American viticultural literatm'e, and twice as many 
more find mention in European treatises on the vine. Few 
other fruits offer the novelties given the grape in flavors, 
aromas, sizes, colors and uses. The vineyard, then, to fulfill 
commercial potentialities, should supply grapes throughout the 
whole season, and of the several colors and flavors and for all 
uses. A prime requisite for a vineyard being well-selected 
varieties, an assortment of all kinds and for all places in 
America is here described. 

ACTONI 

(Vinifera) 

Actoni is a table-grape of the Malaga type which ripens at 
Geneva, New York, late in October, too late for the average 
season in the East but worth trying in favorable locations. 
It is grown in California but is not a favorite sort. The fol- 
lowing brief description is made from fruit grown at Geneva : 

Clusters large, shouldered, tapering, loose; berries medium to ^ ery 
large, long-oval to oval, clear green yellow ; flesh crisp, firm ; flavor 
sweet ; quality good. 

330 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 331 

Agawam 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Randall, Rogers No. 15 

The qualities commending Agawam are large size and attrac- 
tive appearance of bunch and berry ; rich, sweet aromatic 
flavor ; vigor of vine ; and capacity for self-fertilization. 
For a grape having its proportion of European parentage, the 
vine is vigorous, hardy and productive. The chief defects 
in fruit are a thick and rough skin, coarse, solid texture of 
pulp and foxy flavor. The vine is susceptible to the mildews 
and in many localities does not yield well. Although Agawam 
ripens soon after Concord, it can be kept much longer and even 
improves in flavor after picking. The vines prefer heavy soils, 
doing better on clay than on sand or gravel. This is one of 
the grapes grown by E. S. Rogers, Salem, Massachusetts. 
It was introduced as No. 15 but in 1861 was given the name it 
now bears. 

Vine vigorous, hard5^ productive. Canes thick, dark brown ; 
nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils intermittent, 
bifid to trifid. Leaves thick ; upper surface light green, dull, smooth ; 
lower surface pale green, pubescent, flocculent ; lobes lacking ; termi- 
nus acute ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; lateral sinus very shallow ; 
teeth shallow, wide. Flowers on plan of six, nearly self-fertile, open 
late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps until mid-winter. Clusters medium to large, 
short, broad, tapering, loose ; pedicel short ; brush very short, pale 
green. Berries large, oval, dark purplish-red with thin bloom, very 
])ersistent ; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent ; flesh pale green, 
translucent, tough, stringy, solid, foxy ; good. Seeds adherent, two 
to five, large, long, brown. 

Almeria 

(Vinifera) 

This is one of the varieties commonly found in eastern mar- 
kets from Almeria and Malaga, Spain, although occasionally 



332 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

it may come from California where the variety, or similar varie- 
ties confused with it, is now grown. This sort is remarkable 
for its wonderful keeping qualities ; it is adapted only to hot 
interior regions. The Almeria cultivated by the California 
Experiment Station is described as follows : 

" Vine vigorous ; leaves of medium size, round and slightlj^ or not 
at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and alternately 
large and small ; bunches large, loose or compact, irregular conical ; 
berries from small to large, cylindrical, flattened on the ends, very 
hard and tasteless." 

America 

(Lincecumii, Rupestris) 

The notable qualities of America are vigor of growth and 
health of foliage in vine, and persistence of berries, which have 
strongly colored red juice, high sugar-content and excellent 
flavor. The grapes wholly lack the foxy taste and aroma of 
Labrusca and the variety, therefore, offers possibilities for 
breeding sorts lacking the foxy flavor of Concord and Niagara. 
America has great resistance to heat and cold. Also, it is 
said to be a suitable stock upon which to graft Vinifera varieties 
to resist phylloxera. The vigor of the vine and the luxuriance 
of the foliage make it an excellent sort for arbors. America 
was grown by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of 
Jaeger No. 43 pollinated by a male Rupestris. It was intro- 
duced about 1892. 

Vine vigorous, hardj', productive. Canes long, numerous, dark 
reddish-brown with heavy bloom ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils 
intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves small, thin ; upper surface glossy, 
smooth ; lower surface light green, hairy ; lobes lacking or faint, 
terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus deep and wide ; teeth of average 
depth and width. Flowers self-sterile, usually on plan of six, open 
late ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season or later, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, 
tapering, iiTegular, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel siiort, slender 
with small warts ; brush short, thick with red tinge. Berries small, 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 333 

variable in .size, i-oiind, puri)lisli-l)lack, glossy with purplish-red pig- 
ment, astringent; Hesh dull white with faint red tinge, translucent, 
tender, melting, spicy, vinous, sweet ; good. Seeds free, two to five, 
long, pointed, yellowish-brown. 

Aminia 

(Labrusea, Vinifera) 

Aminia is one of the best early grapes, its season being with 
or a little after ]\Ioore Early. The grapes are of high quality 
and attractive appearance, but the bunches are small, variable 
in size, not well formed and the berries ripen unevenly. The 
vine is vigorous but is neither as hardy nor as productive as a 
commercial variety should be. In 1867 Isadora Bush, a Mis- 
sourian, planted vines of Rogers No. 39 from several different 
sources. When these came into bearing, he distinguished 
three varieties. Bush selected the best of the three and, with 
the consent of Rogers, named it Aminia. In spite of Bush's 
care, there are two distinct grapes cultivated under this name. 

Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, lacking in productiveness. 
Canes rough, long, thick, dark brown ; nodes enlarged ; internodes 
long ; tendrils intermittent, long, trilid or bifid, persistent. Leaves 
large ; upper surface dull, smooth ; lower surface light green, pubescent ; 
lobes three ; terminal lobe acute ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often 
closed and overlapping ; basal sinus usually lacking ; lateral sinus 
shallow, narrow ; teeth shallow, "wide. Flowers open in mid-season, 
self-sterile ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, irregular, coni- 
cal, sometimes with a long shoulder, loose ; pedicel long with few 
warts; brush short, thick, brownish-red. Berries variable, round, 
dull black with thin bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thick, tender, ad- 
herent with purplish-red pigment, astringent ; flesh greenish, trans- 
lucent, tender, solid, coarse, foxy ; good. Seeds adherent, one to six, 
very large. 

August Giant 

(Labrusea, Vinifera) 

August Giant is a hybrid between Labrusea and Vinifera in 
which the fruit characters are those of the latter species. In 



334 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

appearance and taste of berry, the variety resembles Black 
Hamburg. The vine is usually vigorous and, considering its 
parentage, is very hardy. The foliage is thick and luxuriant 
but subject to mildew. Vigor of vine, beauty of foliage and 
the quality of the fruit make the variety desirable for the 
amateur. It needs a long-maturing season. August Giant 
was grown by N. B. White, Norwood, Massachusetts, in 1861, 
from seed of an early, large-berried, red Labrusca pollinated 
by Black Hamburg. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, subject to mildew. Canes long, nu- 
merous, thick, dark brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes 
short ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick ; 
upper surface dark gi-een, glossy, smooth ; lower surface pale green 
or bronzed, pubescent ; lobes three, terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus 
deep, narrow, frequently closed and overlapping ; lateral sinus shallow 
or a notch ; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers open in mid-season, 
self-sterile ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters of average size, short, broad, 
irregularly tapering, single-shouldered, loose ; pedicel long, thick 
with large warts ; brush short, thick, green or with brown tinge. 
Berries large, oval, purplish-red or black, dull with thick bloom, firm ; 
skin tough, adherent, astringent ; flesh green, translucent, tough, 
stringy ; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, large, blunt, light 
brown. 

Bacchus 

(Vulpina, Labrusca) 

Bacchus is an offspring of Clinton which it resembles in vine 
and leaf characters, but surpasses in quality of fruit and in 
productiveness of vine. The special points of merit of the 
variety are : resistance to cold, resistance to phylloxera, free- 
dom from fungi and insects, productiveness, ease of multipli- 
cation and capacity to bear grafts. Its limitations are : poor 
quality for table use, inability to withstand dry soils or droughts, 
and nonadaptability to soils containing much lime. The 
variety originated with J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, 
and was first exhibited by him in 1879. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 335 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous, 
darlv brown with bloom at the nodes which are enlarged and flattened ; 
tendrils bifid. Leaves small ; upper surface dark green, glossy, 
smooth ; lower surface dull green, smooth ; lobes three, terminal one 
acuminate ; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, sometimes overlapping ; 
basal sinus lacking ; lateral sinus shallow, wide. Flowers open early, 
self-sterile ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps well, hangs long. Clusters small, slender, uniform, 
cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, slender with a 
few small warts ; brush short, wine-colored. Berries small, round, 
black, glossy, covered with thin bloom, hang well to pedicels, firm ; 
skin thin, adherent, contains much wine-colored pigment, slightly 
astringent ; flesh dark green, translucent, fine-grained, tough, vinous, 
spicy ; fair quality. Seeds clinging, one to four, many abortive, large, 
short and wide, plump, sharply pointed, brown. 

Bakator 

(Vinifera) 

This is a Hungarian wine grape but its high quality and early 
season make it a desirable table-grape in the East. It seems to 
be grown but little on the Pacific slope. The following descrip- 
tion is made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York : 

Vine medium in vigor, productiA^e. Young leaves tinged red at 
edges, upper surface glossy ; mature leaves large, round, upper surface 
dull, lower surface downy ; lobes five, terminal lobe acuminate ; basal 
sinus deep, medium to narrow, closed to overlapping ; lower lateral 
sinus deep, variable in width ; upper lateral sinus deep, usually nar- 
rows ; margins dentate, teeth shallow to medium deep. Flowers 
appear late ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit i-ipens at Geneva the first or second week in October and 
keeps well in storage ; clusters above medium in size, medium in 
length, broad, frequently double-shouldered, tapering, medium to loose ; 
berries medium to small, oval, light red becoming dark when fully 
ripe, with thick bloom ; skin thin, tender, adherent to the pulp ; flesh 
greenish, juicy, tender, melting, vinous, sweet ; quality very good. 

Barry 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 
Barry (Plate VTI) is one of the best American black grapes, 
resembling in berry and in flavor and keeping quality of fruit its 



336 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

European parent, Black Hamburg. The appearance of berry 
and bunch is attractive. The vine is vigorous, hardy and pro- 
ductive but susceptible to mildew. The ripening season is just 
after that of Concord. For the table, for winter keeping and 
for the amateur, this variety may be highly recommended. 
Barry was dedicated in 1869, by E. S. Rogers, who originated it, 
to Patrick Barry, distinguished nurseryman and pomologist. 
The variety is grown in gardens throughout the grape regions 
of eastern America. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, susceptible to mildew. Canes 
long, numerous, thick, dark brown with heavy bloom ; nodes flattened ; 
shoots glabrous ; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large ; 
upper surface light green, gloss3', smooth ; lower surface pale green, 
pubescent ; lobes one to tlu-ee, terminus acute ; petiolar sinus deep, 
narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping ; basal sinus usually lacking ; 
lateral sinus shallow, narrow ; teeth shallow. Flowers open in mid- 
season, self-sterile ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters short, very broad, tapering, 
often subdividing into several parts, compact ; pedicel with small 
warts. Berries large, oval, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with 
heavy bloom, adherent ; skin thin, tough, adherent ; flesh pale green, 
translucent, tender, stringy, vinous, pleasant-flavored ; good. Seeds 
adherent, one to five, large, deeply notched, with enlarged neck, 
brown. 

Beacon 

(Lineeeumii, Labrusea) 

Another of T. V. Munson's hybrids is Beacon. It is not 
well adapted to northern regions but does very well in the 
South. The vine is vigorous and bears a handsome, compact 
mass of foliage which retains its color and freshness through 
drouths and heat. Munson grew Beacon in 1887 from seed 
of Big Berry (a variety of Lineeeumii) pollinated by Concord, 
the vine bearing first in 1S89. 

Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, productive. Canes short, 
slender, light brown. Leaves healthy, thick, dark green, sometimes 
rugose ; veins showing indistinctly thi'ough the slight pubescence of 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 337 

llie lower surface. Flowers open in mid-seasou, on plan of five or six, 
self-fertile. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps Avell. Clusters large, long, slender, cjdin- 
drical, usually high-shouldered, compaet. Berries variable in size, 
round, purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, firm ; skin tough, 
adherent with a large amount of purplish-red pigment, astringent ; 
flesh tender, aromatic, spicy, vinous, mildly subacid ; good. Seeds 
free, large, broad, blunt, notched. 

Berckmans 

(Vulpina, Labrusea, Bourquiniana) 

In Berckmans we have the fruit of Delaware on the vine of 
CUnton. The berry and bunch resemble Delaware in shape ; 
the fruit is of the same color ; bunch and berry are larger ; the 
grapes keep longer ; the flesh is firmer but the quality is not so 
good, the flesh lacking tenderness and richness in comparison 
with Delaware. The vine of Berckmans is not only more 
vigorous, but is less subject to mildew than that of Delaware. 
The vine characters are not, however, as good as those of 
Clinton. The variety is poorly adapted to some soils, and on 
these the grapes do not color well. In spite of many good 
qualities, Berckmans is but an amateur's grape. The name 
commemorates the viticultural labors of P. J. Berckmans, 
a contemporary and friend of A. P. Wylie, of Chester, South 
Carolina, who originated the variety. Berckmans came from 
Delaware seed fertilized by Clinton, the seed having been sown 
in 1868. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, 
dark brown ; nodes prominent, flattened ; internodes short ; shoots 
glabrous ; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves small, thin ; 
upper surface Hght green, smooth ; lower surface pale green, glabrous ; 
lobes one to three, terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus shallow, wide ; 
basal sinus usually lacking ; lateral sinus shallow. Flowers open 
early, self-fertile ; stamens upright. 

Fruit ripens with Delaware. Clusters shouldered, compact, 
slender ; pedicel long, slender with few warts ; brush short, light green. 
Berries small, oval, Delaware-red, darker when well ripened, covered 



338 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

with thin bloom, persistent ; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent ; 
flesh pale yellowisli-green, translucent, fine-grained, tender, melting, 
vinous, sweet, sprightly ; very good. Seeds free, one to four, small, 
broad, blunt, brown. 

Black Eagle 

(Labrusea, Vinifera) 

The fruit of Black Eagle is of the best, but the vine lacks in 
vigor, hardiness and productiveness and is self-sterile. Bunch 
and berry are large and attractive. The season is about with 
Concord. Black Eagle has wholly failed as a commercial 
variety, and its several weaknesses prevent amateurs from 
growing it widely. The variety originated with Stephen W. 
Underbill, Croton-on-Hudson, New York, from seed of Con- 
cord pollinated by Black Prince. It fruited first in 1866. 

Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, unproductive. Canes rough, 
thick, reddish-brown with light bloom ; nodes enlarged, flattened 
internodes long ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves 
thick ; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth to rugose ; lobes five ; 
terminal lobe acute ; petiolar sinus deep ; lateral sinus wide, narrowng 
towards top, deep. Flowers open in mid-season, self-sterile ; stamens 
reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, tapering, single- 
or double-shouldered, compact ; pedicel long, slender with few warts ; 
brush short, pale green. Berries variable in size, oval, black, glossy 
with thick bloom ; skin tender, thin, adherent with wine-colored pig- 
ment ; flesh pale green, translucent, tender, vinous ; good. Seeds free, 
one to four, large. 

Black Hamburg 

(Vinifera) 

Black Hamburg (Plate VI) is an old European sort, long the 
mainstay in forcing-houses in Belgium, England and America 
and now popular out of doors in California. It is an excellent 
table-grape but, while it keeps well, its tender skin does not 
permit its being shipped far, especially when grown out of doors. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 339 

The vine is subject to disease. The following description of 
the fruit is made from grapes grown in the greenhouse : 

Bunches very large, often a foot in length and weighing several 
pounds ; very broad at the shoulder and gradually tapering to a point ; 
eompaot, oftentimes too compact ; berries very large, round or slightly 
round-oval ; skin rather thick ; dark purple becoming black at full 
maturity ; flesh firm, juicy, sweet and rich ; quality very good or best. 
Season early in the forcing-house but rather late out of doors. 

Black Malvoise 

(Vinifera) 

This variety is rather widely grown in California as an early 
table-grape and might be worth trying in eastern grape regions. 
While the fruit is not of the best quality, it is good. The fol- 
lowing description is compiled : 

Vine vigorous, healthy and productive ; wood long-jointed, rather 
slender, light brown. Leaves of medium size, oval, evenly and deeply 
five-lobed ; basal sinus open, with nearly parallel sides ; upper surface 
smooth, almost glabrous ; lower surface slighth' tomentoseon the veins 
and veinlets. Bunches large, loose, branching ; berries large, oblong, 
reddish black with faint bloom ; flesh firm, juicy, crisp ; flavor lacking 
in richness and character; quality not high. Season early, keeping 
and shipping but poorly. 

Black Morocco 

(Vinifera) 

Black Morocco very generally meets the approval of grape- 
growers on the Pacific slope without being a prime favorite 
for either home use or commerce. The grapes are not high 
enough in quality for a home vineyard, and, while they ship 
well, are hard to handle because of the large size and rigidity 
of the bunches. Another fault is that the vines are subject 
to root-knot. The chief asset of the variety is handsome 
appearance of fruit. This variety is remarkable for the num- 



340 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ber of second-crop bunches which it produces on the laterals. 
The following description is compiled : 

Vine very vigorous, productive ; canes spreading, few. Leaves me- 
dium to small, very deeply five-lobed ; the younger leaves truncate at 
base, giving them a semi-circular outline, with long, sharp teeth alter- 
nating with very small ones ; glabrous, or nearly so, on both sides. 
Bunches very large, short, shouldered, compact and rigid ; berries very 
large, round, often misshapen from compression ; dull purple, lacking 
color in the center of the bunch ; flesh firm, crisp, neutral in flavor, 
lacking in richness ; quality rather low. Season late, keeping and 
shipping well. 

Brighton 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Brighton (Plate VIII) is one of the few Labrusca- Vinifera 
hybrids which have attained prominence in commercial vine- 
yards. It ranks as one of the leading amateur grapes in east- 
ern iVmerica and is among the ten or twelve chief commercial 
sorts of this region. Its good points are : for the fruit, high 
quality ; for the vine, vigorous growth, productiveness, adapta- 
bility to various soils and ability to withstand fungi. Brighton 
has two serious defects which keep it from taking higher rank 
as a commercial variety : it deteriorates in quality very quickly 
after maturity, so that it cannot be kept for more than a few 
days at its best, hence cannot well be shipped to distant 
markets ; and it is self-sterile to a more marked degree than 
any other commonly-grown grape. Brighton is a seedling of 
Diana Hamburg pollinated by Concord, raised by Jacob 
]\Ioore, Brighton, New York. The original vine fruited first 
in 1870. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, subject to mildew. Canes long, 
numerous, light brown ; nodes enlarged, usually flattened ; internodes 
long ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper 
surface dark green, dull, smooth ; lower surface pale green, pubescent ; 
lobes three when present, terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus inter- 




Plate XXIV. — Moore Early (X: 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 341 

mediate in depth and width.; lateral sinus shallow; teeth narrow. 
Flowers open late, self-sterile ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, heavily 
shouldered, loose ; pedicel thick ; brush pale green with brown tinge, 
thick, short. Bemes irregiilar, large, oval, light red, glossy with heavy 
bloom, persistent, soft ; skin thick, tender, adherent, astringent ; 
flesh green, transparent, tender, stringy, melting, aromatic, vinous, 
sweet ; very good. Seeds free, one to five, broad, light brown. 

Brilliant 

(Labrusca, Vinifera, Bourquiniana) 

Brilliant is a cross between Lindley and Delaware. In 
cluster and size of berry it resembles Lindley ; in color and 
quality of fruit it is about the same as Delaware, differing chiefly 
in having more astringency in the skin. Its season is about 
with Delaware. The grapes do not crack or shell, therefore 
ship well, and have very good keeping qualities, especially 
on the vine where they often hang for weeks. The vine is 
vigorous and hardy. The defects which have kept Brilliant 
from becoming one of the standard commercial sorts are : 
marked susceptibility to fungi, variability in size of cluster, 
unevenness in ripening and unproductiveness. In favorable 
situations this variety pleases the amateur, and the commercial 
grower often finds it profitable. The seed which produced 
Brilliant was planted by T. V. ]\Iunson, Denison, Texas, in 
1883 and the variety was introduced in 1887. 

Vine vigoroiis, hardy, rather unproductive. Canes long, numerous, 
thick, dark brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes long ; ten- 
drils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface 
dark green, dull, rugose ; lower surface gray-green, downy ; obscurely 
three-lobed with terminal lobe acute ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; 
basal and lateral sinuses obscure and shallow when present ; teeth 
intermediate in depth and width. Flowers open late, self-fertile ; 
stamens upright. 

Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters medium, blunt, 
cylindrical, usually sliouldered, compact ; pedicel short, thick with a 
few small warts ; brush short, thick, pale green with reddish tinge. 



342 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Berries round, dark red, glossy with thin l)loom, strongly adherent, 
firm ; skin thin, tough, adherent ; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy, 
stringy, fine-grained, vinous, sweet ; good. Seeds clinging, one to 
four, large, broad, elongated, plump, light brown. 

Brown 

(Labrusca) 

In spite of many encomiums in the past quarter century, 
Brown has not received favorable recognition from fruit-grow- 
ers. The quality is not high, the berries shatter badly, and the 
vine is lacking in vigor. Brown is a seedling of Isabella which 
came up in a yard at Newburgh, New York, about 1884. 

Vine hardy, productive. Canes short, slender, dark brown ; tendrils 
continuous. Leaves healthy, light green, glossy ; veins well defined, 
distinctly showing through the thick bronze of the lower surface. 
Flowers open early, self -fertile stamens upright. 

Fruit large, keeps well. Clusters small to medium, slender, cylin- 
drical or tapering, usually single-shouldered. Berries intermediate 
in size, oval, black with thick bloom, drop soon after ripening ; skin 
adherent; flesh juicy, tough, fine-grained, a little foxy, mild next the 
skin but tart at center ; good. Seeds short, blunt, light brown. 

Campbell Early 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

The meritorious qualities of Campbell Early (Plate IX) are : 
The grapes are high in quality when mature ; free from foxiness 
and from acidity about the seeds ; have small seeds which 
easily part from the flesh; are early, ripening nearly a fort- 
night before Concord ; bunch and berry are large and handsome ; 
and the vines are exceptionally hardy. Campbell Early falls 
short in not being adapted to many soils ; the variety lacks 
productiveness; the grapes attain full color before they are 
ripe and are, therefore, often marketed in an unripe condition ; 
the bunch is variable in size ; and the color of the berry is not 
attractive. George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, grew this 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 343 

variety from a seedling of ^Nloore Early pollinated by a Labriisca- 
Vinifera hybrid. It bore first in 1892. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes thick, dark reddish- 
bi'own, surface roughened with small warts; nodes flattened; inter- 
nodes short ; shoots pubescent ; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or 
trifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface green, glossy ; lower 
surface bronze, heavily pubescent ; lobes three, usually entire, ter- 
minal one acute ; petiolar sinus shallow, wide ; basal sinus pubescent ; 
lateral sinus wide or a notch ; teeth shallow, nan-ow. Flowers seh'- 
fertile, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters usually large, long, 
broad, tapering, single-shouldered ; pedicel short, slender with small 
warts ; brush long, light wine color. Berries usually large, round, 
oval, dark purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ; 
skin tough, thin, adherent with dark red pigment, astringent ; flesh 
green, translucent, juicy, coarse, vinous, sweet from skin to center ; 
good. Seeds free, one to four, light brown, often with yellow tips. 

Canada 

(Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Canada is considered the most desirable hybrid between 
Vulpina and Vinifera. The variety shows Vinifera more than 
Vulpina parentage; thus, in susceptibility to fungal diseases, 
in shape, color and texture of foliage, in the flavor of the fruit 
and in the seeds, there are marked indications of Vinifera ; 
while the vine, especially in the slenderness of its shoots and 
in the bunch and berry, shows Vulpina. Canada has little 
value as a dessert fruit but makes a very good red wine or 
grape-juice. Canada is a seedling of Clinton, a Labrusca- 
Vulpina hybrid, fertilized by Black St. Peters, a variety of 
Vinifera. Charles iVrnold, Paris, Ontario, planted the seed 
which produced Canada in 1860. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, 
slender, ash-gray, reddish-brown at nodes with heavy bloom ; nodes 
enlarged ; internodes short ; tendrils intermittent, short, trifid or 
bifid. Leaves thin ; upper surface light green, smooth ; lower surface 
pale green, hairy ; terminal lobe acute ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; 



344 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

basal sinus variable in depth and width ; lateral sinus deep and narrow ; 
teeth deep and wide. Flowers self-sterile, early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well, ("lusters long, slender, uniform, 
cj'lindrical, compact ; pedicel long, slender, smooth ; brush short, light 
brown. Berries small, round, purplish-black, glossy with heavy 
bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thin, tough, adherent ; flesh dark green, 
very juicy, fine-grained, tender, spicy, pleasant vinous flavor, agreeably 
tart ; good. Seeds free, one to three, blunt, light brown. 

Canandaigua 

(Labrusea, Vinifera) 

Canandaigua is worth attention because of the exceptionally 
good keeping qualities of the grapes. The flavor is very good 
at picking time but seems, if anything, to improve in storage. 
The vine characters are those of Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids, 
and in these the variety is the equal of the average cultivated 
hybrid of these two species. The characters of the fruit, also, 
show plainly an admixture of Vinifera and Labrusea so com- 
bined as to make the grapes very similar to the best of such 
hybrids. Canandaigua is a chance seedling found by E. L, 
Van Wormer, Canandaigua, New York, growing among wild 
grapes. It was distributed about 1897. 

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes long, few, 
reddish-brown, faint bloom ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils semi- 
continuous, bifid, dehisce early. Leaves large, thin ; upper surface 
light green ; lower surface gi'ay-green. Flowers sterile or sometimes 
partly self-fertile, open in mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit late mid-season, keeps unusually well. Clusters variable 
in size, usually heavily single-shouldered, loose to medium. Berries 
large, oval, black, covered with thick bloom, persistent ; skin adher- 
ent, thin, tough ; flesh firm, sweet and rich ; good, improves as season 
advances. Seeds long with enlarged neck. 

Carman 

(Lineeeumii, Vinifera, Labrusea) 

Carman is a grape having the characters of three species 
and hence is of interest to grape improvers. It has not become 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 345 

popular with growers, chiefly because the grapes ripen very 
late and are not of high quality. The most valuable character 
of the variety is that of long keeping, whether hanging on the 
vine or after harvesting. T. V. ^Nlunson, Denison, Texas, 
raised Carman from seed of a wild post-oak grape taken from 
the woods, pollinated with mixed pollen of Triumph and Herbe- 
mont. It was introduced in 1892. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, rather productive. Canes long, nu- 
merous, thick, reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes 
long ; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper 
surface light green, glossy, older leaves rugose ; lower surface pale 
green, pubescent ; terminal lobe acute ; petiolar sinus deep ; basal 
sinus absent or shallow ; lateral sinus shallow when present. Plowers 
self-fertile or nearly so, open very late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, tapering, single- 
shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, slender, smooth ; brush short, 
slender, wine-colored. Berries small, round, slightly oblate, purplish- 
black, glossy, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thin, 
tough, free ; flesh yellowish-gi-een, tender, post-oak flavor, vinous, 
spicy ; good to very good. Seeds free, one to four, small, blunt, 
brown. 

Catawba 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Arkansas, Cataicba Tokay, Cherokee, Fancher, Keller's White, 
Lebanon, Lincoln, Mammoth Catawba, MeaxVs Seedling, 
Merceron, Michigan, Mmicy, Omega, Rose of Tennessee, 
Saratoga, Singleton, Tekomah, Tokay, Virginia Amber. 

Catawba has long been the standard red grape in the markets 
of eastern America, chiefly because the fruit keeps well and is 
of high quality. The vine is vigorous, hardy and productive, 
but the foliage and fruit are susceptible to fungi. These two 
faults account for the decline of Catawba in grape regions in 
the United States and for its growing unpopularity. In botani- 
cal characters and in adaptations and susceptibilities, the variety 
suggests Mnifera crossed with Labrusca. The characters of 



346 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Catawba seem readily transmissible to its offspring and, besides 
having a number of pure-bred descendants which more or less 
resemble it, it is a parent .of a still greater number of cross- 
breeds. As with Catawba, most of its progeny show Vinifera 
characters, as intermittent tendrils, Vinifera color of foliage, 
a vinous flavor wholly or nearly free from foxiness, and the 
susceptibilities of Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids to certain diseases 
and insects. Catawba was introduced by John x\dlum. Dis- 
trict of Columbia, about 1823. Adlum secured cuttings from 
a Mrs. Scholl, Clarksburgh, Montgomery County, Maryland, 
in the spring of 1819. Its further history is not known. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, thick, dark 
brown ; nodes enlarged ; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves 
large ; upper surface light green, dull, smooth ; lower surface grayish- 
white, heavily pubescent ; lobes sometimes three, terminal one acute ; 
petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; basal sinus often lacking ; lateral sinus 
narrow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self -fertile, open late, 
stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, single- 
or sometimes double-shouldered, loose ; pedicel with a few incon- 
spicuous warts ; brush short, pale green. Berries of medium size, 
oval, dull purplish-red with thick bloom, firm ; skin thick, adherent, 
astringent ; flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, vinous, 
sprightly, sweet and rich ; very good. Seeds free, frequently abortive, 
two, broad-necked, distinctly notched, blunt, brown. 

Champion 

(Labrusca) 

Beaconsfield, Early Champion, Talman^s Seedling 

Champion is a favorite early grape with some growers, al- 
though the poor quality of the fruit should have driven it from 
cultivation long ago. The characters which have kept it in 
the market are earliness, good shipping qualities, attractive 
appearance of fruit, and a vigorous, productive, hardy \'ine. 
The hardiness of the vine and the short season of fruit develop- 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 347 

ment make it a good variety for northern climates. This 
grape is best in appearance of fruit, in quality and in the quan- 
tity produced, on light sandy soils. The origin of Champion 
is unknown. It was first grown about 1870 in New York. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy and productive. Canes of average size, 
dark brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; shoots 
pubescent ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large ; upper sur- 
face dark green, dull, rugose ; lower surface dull gray, downy ; lobes 
usually three, often obscurely five, terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus 
deep ; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, three weeks before Concord, season short. Clusters 
medium in size, blunt, cylindrical, usually not shouldered, compact ; 
pedicel short with inconspicuous warts ; brush white tinged with 
bronze. Berries medium in size, round, dull black covered with heavy 
bloom, soft ; skin thick, tender, adherent, astringent ; flesh light green, 
translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, foxy ; poor in quality. Seeds 
adherent, one to five, broad, long, blunt, light brown. 

Chasselas Golden 

(Vinifera) 

Chasselas Dore, Fontainehleau, Siveehvater 

Several qualities have made Chasselas Golden a favorite 
grape wherever it can be grown. The variety is adapted to 
widely differing environments ; the season of ripening is early ; 
while not choicely high, the quality of the grapes is good and 
they are beautiful, clear green tinged with beautiful golden 
bronze where exposed to the sun. Chasselas Golden is a 
popular variety on the Pacific slope and should be one of the 
first Viniferas to be tried in the East. The following descrip- 
tion was made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York : 

Vine medium in vigor, very productive ; buds open in mid-season. 
Young leaves tinged with red on both upper and lower surfaces, thinly 
pubescent to glabrous ; mature leaves medium to above in size, 
slightly cordate ; upper surface glabrous, lower surface slightly pul)es- 
cent along the veins ; lobes five in number, terminal lobe acuminate ; 



348 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

basal sinus broad and rather deep ; lower lateral sinus variable, usually 
broad and somet mes deep ; upper lateral sinus broad and frequently 
deep : teeth large, obtuse to rounded. Flowers late ; stamens upright. 
Fruit ripens early and keeps well in storage ; clusters large, long, 
broad, tapering, sometimes with a single shoulder, compactness me- 
dium ; berries medium to above, slightly oval, pale green to clear 
yellow, with thin bloom ; skin thin, tough, adherent, slightly astrin- 
gent ; flesh greenish, translucent, firm, juicy, tender, sweet ; good. 

Chasselas Rose 

(Vinifera) 

Chasselas Rose is very similar to Chasselas Golden, differing 
chiefly in smaller bunch and berry and slightly different flavor 
which is possibly better. It is a standard sort in California 
and should be planted in the East where the culture of Viniferas 
is attempted. The description is made from fruit grown at 
Geneva, New York : 

Vine of medium vigor, productive. Opening leaves tinged with 
red on both surfaces, mature leaves small, round ; upper surface 
medium green, somewhat dull, smooth ; loAver surface glabrous ; 
lobes three ; basal sinus medium in depth and of variable width ; 
lateral sinus deep, narrow ; teeth shallow, wide, dentate. Flowers 
appear late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit ripens the second week in October and is a good keeper though 
it loses its flavor in storage ; clusters above and below medium, long, 
tapering to cylindrical, compact ; berries medium in size, roundish-oval, 
light red changed to violet-red by the bloom ; skin thin, astringent, 
juicy, tender, sweet, mild ; quality good. 

Chautauqua 

(Labrusea) 

In appearance of fruit, Chautauqua is very similar to Concord, 
its parent, but the grapes ripen a few days earlier and are of 
better quality, although they do not differ in these respects 
sufficiently to make the variety much more than an easily' 
recognized strain of Concord. Chautauqua is a volunteer 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 349 

seedling of Concord, ft)und near Brocton, New York, by H. T. 
Bashtite about 1890. 

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, unproductive. Canes long, thick, 
cylindrical ; internodes long ; tendrils continuous, tritid. Leaves 
large, irregularly round, dark green ; upper surface dark green ; lower 
surface tinged with bronze ; leaf entire or faintly three-lobed. Flowers 
semi-fertile, open in mid-season or earlier ; stamens upright. 

Fruit earljf in mid-season. Clusters medium to large, broad, 
sometimes single-shouldered, compact. Berries large, round or slightly 
oval, purplish-black with abundant bloom, shatter badly ; skin thin, 
very astringent ; flesh tough, vinous, sweet at skin, acid at center ; 
good to very good. Seeds few, free, broad, plump. 

Clevenee 

(Viilpina, Labrusca) 

This variety has long been grown in New Jersey and New 
York, and in both states is highly esteemed as a wine-grape. 
The fruit is remarkable in coloring very early and in ripening 
late. The vine is hardy, very vigorous, succeeds in various 
soils, and since it bears grafts well is an excellent sort upon which 
to graft varieties not thriving on their own roots. Clevener is 
self-sterile and must be planted with some other variety to set 
fruit well. In spite of its good qualities, Clevener is hardly 
holding its own in commercial vineyards, and it is not a desir- 
able fruit for the amateur who wants a table-grape. Clevener 
has been raised in the vicinity of Egg Harbor, New Jersey, 
since about 1870, but its place and time of origin are unknown. 

Vine a rampant grower, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, 
thick, dark reddish-brown with heavy bloom ; nodes enlarged ; tendrils 
continuous, bifid. Leaves unusually large, dark green with well- 
defined ribs showing through the thin pubescence of the under surface ; 
lobes wanting or faint ; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-sterile, open 
very early ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters do not always fill well, small, 
short, slender, irregularly tapering, often with a single shoulder. 
Berries small, round or sHghtly flattened, black, glossy, covered with 



350 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

heavy bloom, persistent, firm ; skin tough, thin, inehned to crack, 
adherent with much purpUsh-red pigment ; flesh reddish-green, juicy, 
tender, soft, flne-grained, aromatic, spicy ; good. Seeds free, notched, 
sharp-pointed, dark brown. 



Clinton 

(Vulpina, Labrusca) 

Worthington 

Clinton (Plate X) came into prominence because of vigor, 
hardiness, fruitfulness and immunity to phylloxera. A serious 
defect is that the vines bloom so early that the blossoms are often 
caught by late frosts in northern climates. Other defects are : 
the fruit is small and sour, and the seeds and skins prominent. 
The fruit colors early in the season but does not ripen until 
late, a slight touch of frost improving the flavor. Clinton 
bears grafts well, making a quick and firm union with Labrusca 
and Vinifera, and the vines are easily propagated from cuttings. 
This variety has been used widely in grape-breeding, and its 
blood can be traced in many valuable varieties. The offspring 
of Clinton are usually very hardy, and this, taken with its other 
desirable characters, makes it an exceptionally good starting- 
point for breeding grapes for northern latitudes. Clinton is an 
old sort, the Worthington, known as early as 1815, renamed; 
it began to attract attention about 1840. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, 
slender, reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; shoots smooth ; 
tendrils intermittent, sometimes continuous, bifid. Leaves hang until 
late in the season, small, thin ; upper surface dark green, smooth ; 
lower surface pale green, glabrous ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, urn- 
shaped ; basal and lateral sinuses shallow ; teeth wide. Flowers self- 
fertile, open early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season. Clusters small, slender, cylindrical, uniform, 
single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, very slender, smooth ; 
brush tinged with red. Berries small, round, oval, purplish-black, 
gloss3% covered with thick bloom, adherent, firm ; skin very thin, 




Plate XXV. — Muscat Hamburg (X| 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 351 

tough, free from pulp with much wine-colored pigment, astringent ; 
flesh dark green, juicy, fine-grained, tough, solid, spicy, sour, vinous. 
Seeds adherent, two, short, blunt, brownish. 

COLERAIN 

(Labrusca) 

This is one of the numerous white seedh'n ;s of Concord and 
one of the few with sufficient merit to be kept in cultivation. 
The vine has the characteristic foliage and habit of growth of its 
parent, but the fruit is earlier by a week, is of much higher 
quality and lacks the foxiness of most Labruscas. The grapes 
are sprightly and vinous, and neither seeds nor skin are as 
objectionable as in the parent. The fruit hangs to the vine 
and keeps well, but owing to tender pulp does not ship well. 
The variety is unproductive in some localities. Colerain is 
worthy a place in home vineyards. David Bundy, Colerain, 
Ohio, grew this variety from seed of Concord planted in 1880. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes slender, 
dark reddish-browoi ; nodes flattened ; internodes short, bifid. Leaves 
thick ; upper surface light green, dull, smooth ; lower surface bronze, 
downy ; leaf not lobed, terminus acute ; petiolar sinus wide ; basal and 
lateral sinus very shallow when present ; teeth shallow. Flowers self- 
fertile, opening in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early. Clusters medium in size and length, slender, blunt, 
tapering, irregular, strongly shouldered, compact ; pedicel slender, 
smooth ; brush green. Berries round, light green, glossy -with thin 
bloom, persistent ; sldn unusually thin, tender, adherent, unpig- 
mented, astringent ; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, 
tender, soft, vinous, sweet ; good. Seeds free, one to three, small, 
broad, notched, short, plump, brown. 

Columbian Imperial 

(Labrusca, Vulpina) 

Columbian, Jumho 

Columbian Imperial is a Labrusca-Vulpina hybrid chiefly 
remarkable for the great size of its reddish-black berries, al- 



352 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

though the \'ine is so exceptionally healthy and ^'igol•ous as to 
give it prominence for these characters as well. The variety 
has remarkably thick leathery leaves which seem almost proof 
against either insects or fungi. The quality of the fruit, how- 
ever, is inferior, and the small clusters vary in number of 
berries and these shell easily. The only value of the variety 
is for exhibition purposes and for breeding to secure the desirable 
characters named. The parentage of Columbian Imperial is 
unknown. It originated with J. S. IMcKinley, Orient, Ohio, 
in 1885. 

Vine vigorous, liardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes long, nu- 
merous, thick, dark reddish-brown, heavily pubescent, spiny ; nodes 
prominent ; internodes short ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves 
green, very thick ; lower surface pale green shading into bronze on 
older leaves with little pubescence ; lobes three, indistinct ; teeth 
sharp, shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late. Clusters medium in size, sometimes shouldered ; 
peduncle slender ; pedicel long ; brush long, slender, green. Berries 
very large, round, slightly oval, dull reddish-black with faint bloom, 
firm ; skin thick, tough, unpigmented ; flesh juicy, tough, sweet at 
the skin but acid at center ; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, large, 
plump, broad, blunt. 

Concord 

(Labrusca) 

Concord (Plate XI) is the most widely known of the grapes of 
this continent, and with its offspring, pure-bred and cross-bred, 
furnishes 75 per cent of the grapes of eastern America. The 
preeminently meritorious character of Concord is that it 
adapts itself to varying conditions ; thus. Concord is grown 
with profit in every grape-growing state in the Union and to an 
extent not possible with any other variety. A second character 
which commends Concord is fruitfulness — the vine bears 
large crops year in and year out. iVdded to these points of 
superiority, are : hardiness ; ability to withstand the ravages 
of diseases and insects ; comparative earliness ; certainty of 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 353 

maturity in iiorthcni regions ; and fair size and handsome 
appearanec of bunch and berry. Concord also blossoms late 
in the spring and does not suffer often from spring frosts, nor is 
the fruit often injured by late frosts. The crop hangs well on 
the vine. 

The variety is not, however, without faults : the quality is 
not high, the grapes lacking richness, delicacy of flavor and 
aroma, and having a foxy taste disagreeable to many ; the seeds 
and skin are objectionable, the seeds being large and abundant 
and difficult to separate from the flesh, and the skin being 
tough and unpleasantly astringent ; the grapes do not keep nor 
ship well and rapidly lose flavor after ripening ; the skin cracks 
and the berries shell from the stems after picking ; and the 
vine is but slightly resistant to phylloxera. While Concord is 
grown in the South, it is essentially a northern grape, becoming 
susceptible to fungi in southern climates and suffering from 
phylloxera in dry, warm soils. 

The botanical characters of Concord indicate that it is a pure- 
bred Labrusca. Seeds of a wild grape were planted in the fall of 
1843 by E. W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts, plants from which 
fruited in 1849. One of these seedlings was named Concord. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, thick, 
dark reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes long ; 
shoots pubescent ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid, sometimes trifid. 
Leaves large, thick ; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth ; lower 
surface hght bronze, heavily pubescent ; lobes three when present, 
terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus variable ; basal sinus usually lack- 
ing ; lateral sinus obscure and frequently notched ; teeth shallow, 
narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps from one to two mouths. Clusters uniform, 
large, wide, broadly tapering, usually single-shouldered, sometimes 
double-shouldered, compact ; pedicel thick, smooth ; brush pale 
green. Berries large, round, glossy, black with heavy bloom, firm ; 
skin tough, adherent with a small amount of wine-colored pigment, 
astringent ; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, 
solid, foxy ; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, large, broad, distinctly 
notched, plump, blunt, brownish. 
2a 



354 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Cottage 

(Labrusca) 

In vine and fruit, Cottage resembles its parent, Concord, 
having, however, remarkably large, thick, leathery leaves. It 
is noted also for its strong, branching root system and canes so 
rough as to be almost spiny. The fruit is better in quality than 
that of its parent, having less foxiness and a richer, more delicate 
flavor. The crop ripens from one to two weeks earlier than Con- 
cord. The good qualities of the variety are oflFset by compara- 
tive unproductiveness and unevenness in ripening. Cottage 
is recommended as an early grape of the Concord type for the 
garden. This variety was grown from seed of Concord by E. 
W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts. It was introduced in 1869. 

Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy. Canes rough, hairy, long, numerous, 
dark brown ; nodes enlarged ; shoots very pubescent ; tendrils con- 
tinuous, bifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface dark green, glossy, 
smooth or rugose ; lower surface tinged with bronze, pubescent ; leaf 
entire with terminal acute ; petiolar sinus deep and wide ; teeth 
shallow, wide. Flowers self -fertile, open early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit does not keep well. Clusters of medium size, broad, cylin- 
drical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, thick 
with a few small warts ; brush dark red. Berries of medium size, 
round, dull black with heavy bloom, drop badly from pedicel, firm ; 
skin thick, tender, adherent with dark purplish-red pigment, astrin- 
gent ; flesh juicj', tough, solid, foxy ; good. Seeds free, one to four, 
large, broad, blunt, light brown. 

Creveling 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Bloom, Bloomburg, Catawissa, Columbia Bloom 

Creveling was long a favorite black grape for the garden, 
where, if planted in good soil, it produces fine clusters of large, 
handsome, very good grapes. Under any but the best of care, 
however, the vine is unproductive and sets loose, straggling 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 355 

bunches. The variety is markedly self-sterile. The origin of 
Creveling is uncertain. It was introduced about 1857 by F. 
F. Merceron, Catawissa, Pennsylvania. 

Vine vigorous, not hardy, often unproductive. Canes long, nu- 
merous, thick, reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes 
long ; shoots glabrous ; tendrils continuous, long, trifid or bifid. 
Leaves large, thick ; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose ; lower sur- 
face pale green, pubescent ; lobes three, or obscurely five, terminal 
one acute ; petiolar sinus deep, closed, overlapping ; basal sinus very 
shallow; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers on 
plan of six, self-sterile, open in mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters long, broad, irregularly 
tapering, single-shouldered, the shoulder often connected to the cluster 
by a long stem, loose; brush thick, dark wine-color. Berries large, 
oval, dull black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ; skin 
thick, tough, adherent with wine-colored pigment, astringent ; flesh 
pale green, translucent, juicy, stringy, tender, coarse, foxy ; good. 
Seeds free, one to five, broad, notched, blunt, light brown. 

Croton 

(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana) 

The fruit of Croton is a feast both to the eye and to the 
palate. Unfortunately the vine is difficult to grow, being 
adapted to but few soils and proving unfruitful, weak in growth, 
precariously tender and subject to mildew and rot in unfavorable 
situations. The grapes have a delicate, sweet Vinifera flavor 
with melting flesh which readily separates from the few seeds. 
The crop hangs on the vines until frost and keeps well into the 
winter. In spite of high quality of fruit, Croton has never 
become widely distributed, wholly failing as a commercial 
variety. It originated with S. W. Underbill, Croton Point, 
New York, from a seed of Delaware pollinated by a European 
grape. Fruits were first exhibited in 1868. 

Vine vigorous, tender, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, 
dark reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged ; internodes short ; shoots 
glabrous ; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves of medium size, 
hang late ; upper surface light green, dull, smooth ; lower sm-face pale 



356 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

green, pubescent ; lobes five, terminal one blunt; basal sinus narrow; 
lateral sinus deep and narrow ; petiolar sinus narrow, often closed and 
overlapping ; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self -fertile, open late ; 
stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters uniform, very large, long, 
slender, irregularly tapering with heavy shoulder, very loose ; pedicel 
long, thick with inconspicuous warts ; brush green. Berries irregular 
in size, round-elongated, yellowish-green with thin bloom, persistent, 
soft ; skin thin, tough, adherent, unpigmented ; flesh green, trans- 
parent, very juicy, melting, vinous, pleasant, agreeably sweet ; very 
good. Seeds free, one to three, elongated, notched, sharply pointed. 

Cunningham 

(Bourquiniana) 

Long, Prince Edward 

Cunningham is cultivated very little in America, but in 
France, at one time, was one of the best-known grapes, both as 
a direct producer and as a stock for European varieties. It was 
much sought for by the French as a stock for large Vinifera 
cions, the size of the vine giving an opportunity for making a 
good graft. In the South, where the variety originated, Cun- 
ningham is not largely grown, as there are several other varieties 
of its type superior in fruit and vine. The vine is a capricious 
grower and is particular as to soil and climate. The grapes 
make a deep yellow wine of a very good quality but have little 
value as table-grapes. Cunningham originated with Jacob 
Cunningham, Prince Edward County, Virginia, about 1812. 

Vine vigorous, spreading, productive. Canes large, long with stiff 
reddish hairs at base ; shoots showing considerable bloom ; tendrils 
intermittent, usually trifid. Leaves large, thick, round, entire or 
lobed ; smooth and dark green above, yellowish green below, pubescent ; 
petiolar sinus narrow, frequently overlapping. 

Clusters of medium size, long, sometimes shouldered, very compact ; 
pedicel long, slender with small warts ; brush short, light brown. 
Berries small, purplish-black with thin bloom ; skin thin, tough with 
much underlying pigment ; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly ; quality poor 
or but fair. Seeds two to five, oval. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 357 

Cynthiana 

(iEstivalis, Labrusca) 
Arkansas, Red River 

There is controversy as to whether this variety differs from 
Norton. The two ripen at separate times, and the fruits differ 
a little so that they must be considered as distinct. Cynthi- 
ana is particular as to soil and location, preferring sandy 
loams and does not thrive on clays or limestones. While 
very resistant to phylloxera, this variety is not much used as a 
resistant stock because it is not easily propagated. The vines 
are resistant to mildew, black-rot, and anthracnose and are 
strong, vigorous growers. The cycle of vegetation for Cyn- 
thiana is long, the buds bursting forth early and the fruit 
maturing very late. The variety has no value as a table-grape 
but in the South is one of the best grapes for red wine. No 
doubt it will prove one of the best southern sorts for grape- 
juice. Cynthiana was received about 1850 by Prince, of 
Flushing, Long Island, from Arkansas, where it was found 
growing in the woods. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes medium in 
length, numerous, reddish-brown with thick bloom; nodes enlarged; 
internodes short ; shoots glabrous ; tendrils intermittent or con- 
tinuous, bifid. Leaves thick, firm ; upper surface dark green, dull, 
rugose ; lower surface tinged with blue, faintly pubescent, cobwebby ; 
lobes variable in number, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, 
narrow, closed, sometimes overlapping; basal sinus shallow; lateral 
sinus shallow, narrow ; teeth shallow ; stamens upright. 

Fruit very late, keeps well. Clusters medium to small, long, 
tapering, often single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, slender, 
with numerous warts ; brush short, thick, wine-colored. Berries 
small, round, black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin 
thin, tough, adherent with purple pigment, astringent; flesh dark 
green, translucent, juicy, tough, firm, spicy, tart ; poor in quality. 
Seeds adherent, one to six, small, short, blunt, dark brown. 



358 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Delaware 
(Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera) 

French Grape, Gray Delaivare, Ladies' Choice, Powell, Ruff 

Delaware (Plate VII) is used wherever American grapes are 
grown as the standard to gauge the quality of other grapes. 
Added to high quality in fruit, the variety withstands climatic 
conditions to which all but the most hardy varieties succumb, 
is adapted to many soils and conditions, and bears under most 
situations an abundant crop. These qualities make it, next to 
Concord, the most popular grape for garden and vineyard now 
grown in the United States. Besides the qualities named, the 
grapes mature sufficiently early to make the crop certain, are 
attractive in appearance, keep and ship well and are more im- 
mune than other commercial varieties to black-rot. Faults of 
the variety are : small vine, slow growth, susceptibility to mil- 
dew, capriciousness in certain soils and small berries. The first 
two faults make it necessary to plant the vines more closely 
than those of other commercial varieties. Delaware succeeds 
best in deep, rich, well-drained, warm soils, but even on these 
it must have good cultivation, close pruning and the crop must 
be thinned. 

Delaware is grown North and South, westward to the Rocky 
Mountains. It is now proving profitable in many southern 
locations as an early grape to ship to northern markets. It is 
an especially desirable grape to cultivate in small garders 
because of its delicious, handsome fruit, its compact habit of 
growth and its ample and lustrous green, delicately formed 
leaves which make it one of the most ornamental of the grapes. 
Delaware can be traced to the garden of Paul H. Provost, 
Frenchtown, New Jersey, where it was growing early in the 
nineteenth century, and from whence it was taken to Delaware, 
Ohio, in 1849 and from there distributed to fruit-growers. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 359 

Vine weak, hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous, slender, 
dark Ijrown ; nodes enlarged ; interuodes short ; tendrils intermittent, 
short, bifid. Leaves small ; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth ; 
lower surface pale green, pubescent ; lobes three to five in number, 
terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus narrow ; basal sinus narrow and 
shallow when present ; lateral sinus deep, narrow ; teeth shallow. 
Flowers self-fertile, open late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, slender, blunt, cylindrical, 
regular, shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, slender, smooth ; brush 
light brown. Berries uniform in size and shape, small, round, light 
red, covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thin, tough, 
adherent, unpigmented, ast)ringent ; flesh light green, translucent, 
juicy, tender, aromatic, vinous, refreshing, sweet ; best in quality. 
Seeds free, one to four, broad, notched, short, blunt, light brown. 



Diamond 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Few other grapes surpass Diamond in quality and beauty of 
fruit. When to its desirable fruit characters are added hard- 
iness, productiveness and vigor of vine, the variety is surpassed 
by no other green grape. Diamond is a diluted hybrid between 
Labrusca and Vinifera and the touch of the exotic grape is just 
sufficient to give the fruit the richness in flavor of the Old World 
grape and not overcome the refreshing sprightliness of the native 
fox-grapes. The Vinifera characters are wholly recessive in 
vine and foliage, the plant resembling closely its American 
parent, Concord. Diamond is well established North and 
South and can be grown in as great a range of latitude as Con- 
cord. Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York, grew Diamond 
about 1870 from Concord seed fertilized by lona. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes short, brown with a 
slight red tinge ; nodes enlarged ; internodes short ; tendrils intermit- 
tent, bifid. Leaves thick ; upper surface light green, dull, smooth ; 
lower surface light bronze, downy ; lobes three in number, indistinct ; 
petiolar sinus very shallow ; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open 
early ; stamens upright. 



360 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters medium to short, broad, blunt, 
cylindrical, often single-shouldex-ed, compact ; pedicel short, thick 
with a few inconspicuous warts ; brush slender, pale green. Berries 
large, ovate, green A\ath a tinge of j'ellow, glossy, covered with thin 
bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent ; flesh 
pale green, transparent, juicy, tender, melting, fine-grained, aromatic, 
sprightly ; very good. Seeds free, one to four, broad and long, sharp- 
pointed, yellowish-brown. 

Diana 

(Labrusca, Vinif»ra) 

Diana (Plate XII) is a seedling of Catawba to which its fruit 
bears strong resemblance, differing chiefly in having lighter color, 
in being less pulpy and more juicy. The flavor resembles that 
of Catawba but has less of the wild taste. The chief point of 
superiority of Diana over Catawba is in earliness, the crop 
ripening ten days sooner, making possible its culture far to the 
north. The defects of Diana are : the vine is tender in cold 
winters; the grapes ripen unevenly; the berries and foliage 
are susceptible to fungi ; and the vine is a shy bearer. Diana 
demands poor, dry, gravelly soil without much humus or 
nitrogen. On clays, loams or rich soils, the vines make a rank 
growth, and the fruits are few, late and of poor quality. The 
vine needs to be long pruned and to have all surplus bunches 
removed, leaving a small crop to mature. Diana is a satis- 
factory grape for the amateur, and where it does especially well 
proves profitable for the local market. INIrs. Diana Crehore, 
Milton, Massachusetts, grew Diana from seed of Catawba, 
planted about 1834. 

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, often unproductive. Canes 
pubescent, long, reddish-brown, covered with thin bloom ; nodes 
enlarged, flattened ; internodes long ; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. 
Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green, heavily pubescent; 
lobes tlu*ee to five, terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus deep, wide, 
often closed and overlapping ; basal , sinus shallow ; lateral sinus 
nan-ow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; 
stamens upright. 




Plate XXVI. — Niagara (Xf). 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 361 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, occasionally 
shouldered, compact ; pedicel covered with small warts ; brush slender, 
pale green. Berries medium in size, slightly ovate, light red covered 
with thin bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thick, tough, slightly adherent ; 
flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, fine-gi'ained, vinous, good. 
Seeds adherent, one to three, light brown. 

Downing 

(Vinifera, ^stivalis. Labrusca) 

Downing is well worthy a place in the garden because of the 
high quality, handsome appearance and good keeping qualities 
of the grapes. Added to these qualities of the fruits are fair 
vigor and health of vine. When grown as far north as New 
York, the vine should be laid down in the winter or receive 
other protection. In most seasons, unremitting warfare must 
be kept up to check mildew. In appearance of bunch and berry, 
Downing is distinct, the clusters being large and well-formed 
and the berries having the oval shape of a Malaga. The flesh, 
also, shows Vitis vinifera in texture and quality, while neither 
seeds nor skins are as objectionable as in pure-bred American 
varieties. J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, first grew 
Downing about 1865. 

Vine tender to cold, unproductive. Canes short, few, slender, 
dark green with an ash-gray tinge, surface covered with thin bloom, 
often roughened with a few small warts ; nodes much enlarged, strongly 
flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. 
Leaves small, round, thick ; upper surface dark green, glossy, rugose ; 
lower surface dark green, glabrous ; lobes one to five, terminal lobe 
acute ; petiolar sinus narrow, closed and overlapping ; basal sinus 
shallow and narrow when present ; lateral sinus shallow, narrow : 
teeth wide, deep. Flowers open late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps until spring. Clusters large, long, slender, cylin- 
drical, sometimes loosely shouldered ; pedicel slender, covered with 
numerous warts ; brush long, slender, green. Berries large, markedly 
oval, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with light bloom, strongly 
persistent, firm ; skin thick, tender, adherent ; flesh green with a 
yellow tinge, translucent, very juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous, mild ; 
very good in quality. Seeds free, one to three, notched, long, brown. 



362 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Dracut Amber 

(Labrusea) 

Dracut Amber is representative of the red type of Labrusea. 
Tlie fruit has no particular merit, its thick skin, coarse pulp, 
seeds and foxy taste all being objectionable. However, the 
vine is very hardy, productive, and ripens its fruit early so that 
this variety becomes valuable in locations where a vigorous, 
hardy, early grape is wanted. Asa Clement, Dracut, Massa- 
chusetts grew Dracut Amber from seed planted about 1855. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, dark 
brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or 
trifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth ; 
lower surface pale gi'een, cobwebby ; lobes three to five with terminal 
one obtuse ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; basal sinus shallow, wide ; 
teeth shallow, {"lowers on plan of six, semi-fertile, mid-season. 

Fruit early, -season short. Clusters short, broad, cylindrical, 
irregular, rarely shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, covered with 
warts ; brush long, light yellowish-green. Berries medium to large, 
oval, dull pale red or dark amber, covered with thin bloom, soft ; 
skin very thick, tender, adherent, astringent ; flesh green, translucent, 
juicy, tough, very foxy ; inferior in quality. Seeds adherent, two to 
five, large, broad, light brown. 

Dutchess 

(Vinifera, Labrusea, Bourquiniana ? ^stivalis?) 

Dutchess (Plate XIII) is not grown largely in commercial vine- 
yards because of several faults, as : the vine is tender to cold ; the 
berries do not ripen evenly ; berries and foliage are susceptible 
to fungi; and in soils to which it is not adapted, berries and 
bunches are small. In spite of these defects, Dutchess should 
not be discarded by the grape-lover, for there are few grapes of 
higher quality. The grapes are sweet and rich, yet do not 
cloy the appetite ; although of but medium size, they are 
attractive, being a beautiful amber color with distinctive dots ; 
the flesh is translucent, sparkling, fine-grained and tender ; 
the seeds are small, few and part readily from the pulp; the 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 363 

skin is thin, yet tough enough for good keeping ; and the bunches 
are large and compact when well grown. The variety is self- 
fertile and, therefore, desirable when only a few vines are 
wanted. The clusters are especially fine when bagged. A. J. 
Cay wood, Marlboro, New York, grew Dutchess from seed of a 
white Concord seedling pollinated by mixed pollen of Delaware 
and Walter. The seed was pjanted in 1868. 

Vine vigorous, an uncertain bearer. Canes dark brown with light 
bloom, surface roughened ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes 
short ; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves irregular 
in outline ; upper surface pale green, pubescent ; leaf entire with 
terminus acute ; petiolar sinus narrow ; basal sinus shallow when 
present ; lateral sinus medium in df^pth or a mere notch. Flowers self- 
fertile, open late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long, 
slender, tapering Avith a prominent single shoulder ; pedicel slender, 
smooth ; brush amber-colored. Berries of medium size, round, pale 
yellow-green verging on amber, some showing bronze tmge with thin 
bloom, persistent, firm ; skin sprinkled with small dark dots, thin, 
tough, adherent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, 
tender, vinous, sweet, of pleasant flavor; quality high. Seeds free, 
one, two or occasionally three, small, short, sharp-pointed, brown. 

Early Daisy 

(Labrusca) 

The qualities of Early Daisy render the variety more than 
commonplace. Its earliness commends it, the ripening period 
being eight or ten days earlier than Champion or Moore Early, 
making it one of the very earliest varieties. For a grape 
maturing at its season, it both keeps and ships well. Early 
Daisy would seem to be as desirable as Hartford or Champion. 
The variety originated with John Kready, IVIount Joy, Penn- 
sylvania, in 1874, as a seedling of Hartford. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, produces fair crops. Canes of medium 
length, numerous, slender, reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; 
tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves small, light green ; upper surface 
rugose ; lower surface slightly pubescent, cobwebby ; lobes wanting or 



364 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

faintly three ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; teeth shallow, narrow. 
Flowers nearly self-sterile. 

Fruit early. Clusters small to medium, often blunt at ends, cylin- 
drical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, slender, 
smooth ; brush reddish, slender. Berries of medium size, round, 
dull black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent; skin tough, pur- 
plish-red pigment ; flesh tough, sohd, aromatic, tart at the skin, acid 
at center ; inferior in flavor and quality. Seeds numerous, adherent, 
of average size, dark brown. 

Early Ohio 

(Labrusca) 

Early Ohio is remarkable, chiefly, in being one of the earliest 
commercial grapes. The fruit resembles that of Concord, of 
which it is probably a seedling. Notwithstanding many 
defects, Early Ohio is grown somewhat commonly, although its 
culture is on the wane. The variety was found in 1882 by 
R. A. Hunt, Euclid, Ohio, between rows of Delaware and 
Concord. 

Vine weak, tender, usually unproductive. Canes short, slender, 
brown v^ith a red tinge ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; 
tendrils continuous, short, bifid. Leaves intermediate in size ; upper 
surface light green, dull, smooth ; lower surface pale green tinged with 
bronze, pubescent ; lobes wanting or one to three, terminal one acute ; 
petiolar sinus shallow, wide ; basal sinus usually absent ; lateral sinus 
shallow, narrow ; teeth shallow. Flowers self -fertile, open in mid- 
season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit very early, docs not keep well. Clusters medium in size, 
tapering; pedicel slender with a few small warts; brush slender, 
tinged with red. Berries variable in size, round, purplish-black, 
glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ; skin adherent, astringent ; 
flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, aromatic ; poor in quality. 
Seeds adherent, one to four, notched, brown with yellowish-brown tips. 

Early Victor 

(Labrusca, Bourquiniana?) 

Early Victor is highest in quality of early black grapes. It 
is especially pleasing to those who object to the foxiness so 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 365 

marked in Hcartford and Champion. Were the season bnt a few- 
days earlier and bunch and berry a little larger, Early Victor 
would be the best grape to start the grape season. The vines 
arc hardy, healthy, vigorous and productive, with growth and 
foliage resembling Hartford, which is probably one of its 
parents, Delaware being the other. The bunches are small, 
compact, variable in shape and the berries are about the size 
and shape of those of Delaware. Its season is that of Moore 
Early or a little later, although, like many black grapes, the 
fruit colors before it is ripe and is often picked too green. Un- 
fortunately the fruit is susceptible to black-rot and shrivels 
after ripening. John Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, first grew 
Early Victor about 1871. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, 
slender, dark brown, surface pubescent ; nodes enlarged ; internodes 
long ; tendrils continuous, bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves thick ; 
upper surface dark green, smooth ; lower surface white, heavily 
pubescent ; lobes three to five, terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus 
intermediate in depth and width ; l)asal sinus shallow and wide when 
present ; lateral sinus narrow. Flowers semi-sterile, open in mid- 
season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit very early, does not keep well. Clusters small, variable in 
shape, cyUndrical, frequently single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel 
short, covered mth numerous small warts ; brush wine-colored or 
pinkish-red. Berries small, round, dark purplish-black, dull with 
heavy bloom, persistent ; skin thin, tough, adherent, contains much red 
pigment, astringent ; flesh greenish-white, opaque, fine-grained, 
aromatic, vinous ; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, broad, notched, 
blunt, dark brown. 

Eaton 

(Labrusca) 

Eaton (Plate XIV) is a pure-bred seedling of Concord which it 
surpasses in appearance but does not equal in ciuality of fruit. 
The flesh is tough and stringy, and though sweet at the skin, is 
acid at the seeds and has the same foxiness that characterizes 
Concord, but with more juice and less richness, so that it is well 



366 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

described as a " diluted " Concord. Tlie grape-skin is very simi- 
lar to that of Concord, and the fruit packs, ships and keeps 
about the same, perhaps not quite as well because of the greater 
amount of juice. The season is a few days earlier than Concord. 
The vine is similar in all characters to that of its parent. The 
grapes ripen unevenly, the flowers are self-sterile, and in some 
locations the vine is a shy bearer. The variety has not found 
favor with either grower or consumer. Eaton originated with 
Calvin Eaton, Concord, New Hampshire, about 1868. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes thick, Hght 
brown with blue bloom ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; 
tendrils continuous, long, bifld or trifid. Leaves large, round, thick ; 
upper surface dark green ; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily 
pubescent ; lobes thi-ee, terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus shallow, 
wide ; basal sinus usuallj' lacking ; lateral sinus shallow, narrow, often 
notched ; teeth shallow. Howers semi-sterile, early ; stamens up- 
right. 

Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, short, liroad, blunt, sometimes 
double-shouldered, compact ; pedicel long, thick, smooth ; brush 
slender, pale green. Berries large, round, black with heavy bloom, 
persistent, firm ; skin tough, adherent, purplish-red pigment, astrin- 
gent ; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, stringy, foxy ; fair in 
quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, broad, notched, plump, blunt. 



Eclipse 

(Labrusea) 

Eclipse (Plate XV) is a seedling of Niagara and, therefore, a 
descendant of Concord which it resembles, differing chiefly in 
earlier fruit which is of better quality. Unfortunately, the 
bunches and berries are small. The vines are hardly surpassed 
by those of any other variety, being hardy, healthy and produc- 
tive, qualities that should commend it for commercial vine- 
yards. The ripe fruit hangs on the vines for some time with- 
out deterioration, and the grapes do not crack in wet weather. 
The crop ripens several days earher than that of Concord. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 367 

Eclipse originated with E. A. Iliehl, Alton, Illinois, from seed 
planted about 1890. 

Vine vigorous, hard3^ productive. Canes medium in length, 
dark reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged ;• tendrils continuous, long, bifid. 
Leaves large ; upper surface dark green ; lower surface white with a 
bronze tinge, heavily pubescent ; lobes wanting or tlii-ee with terminal 
one acute ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; basal sinus usually lacking ; 
lateral sinus narrow, often notched ; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers 
self-sterile, open in mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters of medium size, broad, tapering, 
frequently single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, thick, covered 
with small warts ; brush long, pale green. Berries, large, oval, dull 
black with abundant bloom, persistent, firm ; skin tender, slightly ad- 
herent, astringent ; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine- 
grained, foxy, sweet ; good. Seeds free, one to four, short, broad, dis- 
tinctly notched, blunt, brown. 



Eden 

(Rotundifolia, Munsoniana?) 

Eden is of value as a general-purpose grape for the South 
and is interesting as one of the few supposed hybrids with V. 
rotundifolia. It is probably a hybrid between the species 
named and V. Munsoniana, another southern wild grape. The 
vine is exceedingly vigorous and productive and thrives on clay 
soils, whereas most other Rotundifolias can be grown success- 
fully only on sandy lands. Eden was found some years ago on 
the premises of Dr. Guild, near Atlanta, Georgia. 

Vine very vigorous, productive, healthy and bearing a dense canopy 
of foliage. Canes darker in color than most other Rotundifolias. 
Leaves of medium size and thickness, longer than wide ; petiolar sinus 
wide ; marginal teeth rounded ; leaf-tip blunt. Flowers perfect. 

Fruit early, distinct first and second crops, ripens uniformly. Clus- 
ters large, loose, bearing from five to twenty-five berries which adhere 
fairly well to the pedicels. Berries round, one-half inch in diameter, 
dull black, faintlj'^ specked ; skin thin, tender ; flesh soft, juicy, pale 
green, sprightly ; good in quality. 



368 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Eldorado 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

The fruit of Eldorado is delicately flavored, with a distinct 
aroma and taste and ripens about with that of Moore Early — 
a time when there are few other good white grapes. The vines 
inherit most of the good qualities of Concord, one of its parents, 
excepting ability to set large crops. Even with cross-polli- 
nation, Eldorado sometimes fails to bear and is not worth grow- 
ing unless planted in a mixed vineyard. The clusters are so 
often small and straggling under the best conditions that the 
variety cannot be recommended highly to the amateur ; yet 
its delightful flavor and its earliness commend it. J. H. 
Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, grew Eldorado about 1870 
from seed of Concord fertilized by Allen's Hybrid. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, an uncertain bearer. Canes long, few, thick, 
flattened, bright reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils 
intermittent, rarely continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large to 
medium, irregularly round, dark green ; upper surface rugose on older 
leaves ; lower surface tinged with brown, pubescent ; lobes wanting or 
faintly tliree ; petiolar sinus deep ; teeth shallow. Flowers self- 
sterile, open late ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters do not always set perfectly and 
are variable in size, frequently single-shouldered ; pedicel short, slender, 
smooth ; brush short, yellow. Berries large, round, yellowish-green 
changing to golden yellow, covered with thin bloom ; flesh tender, foxy, 
sweet, mild, high flavored ; good to very good in quality. Seeds 
intermediate in size and length, blunt, yellowish-brown. 

Elvira 

(Vulpina, Labrusca) 

Although it has never attained popularity in the North, 
Elvira (Plate XVI), after its introduction into Missouri about 
forty years ago, reached the pinnacle of popularity as a wine- 
grape in the South. The qualities which commended it were : 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 369 

great productiveness ; earliness, ripening in the North with Con- 
cord ; exceedingly good health, being almost free from fungal 
diseases ; great vigor, as shown by a strong, stocky growth and 
ample foliage ; and almost perfect hardiness e\en as far north 
as Canada. Its good qualities are offset by two defects : thin 
skin which bursts easily, thus wholly debarring it from distant 
markets ; and flavor and appearance not sufRcienth' good to 
make it a table-grape. Elvira originated with Jacob Rommel, 
Morrison, Missouri, from seed of Taylor. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous, 
dark brown ; nodes flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils continuous, 
trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thin ; upper surface Ught green, pubes- 
cent, hairy ; lobes wanting or one to three \^dth terminus acute ; 
petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping ; basal 
sinus usually lacking ; lateral sinus shallow, often notched ; teeth 
deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters short, cylindrical, 
usually single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel smooth ; brush short, 
greenish-yellow with brown tinge. Berries medium in size, I'ound, 
green with yellow tinge, dull \vith thin bloom, firm ; skin very thin, 
tender, adherent, astringent ; flesh green, juicy, fine-grained, tender, 
foxy, sweet ; fair in quality. Seeds free, one to four, medium to large, 
blunt, plump, dark brown. 



Emperor 

(Vinifera) 

Emperor is one of the standard shipping grapes of the Pacific 
slope, being one of the mainstays of the interior valleys. On the 
coast and in southern California, it is irregular in bearing, and on 
the coast the fruits often fail to ripen. It is chiefly grown in the 
San Joaquin Valley. It could hardly be expected to ripen even 
in the most favored grape regions in the East. The following 
brief description is compiled : 

Vine strong, healthy and productive. Leaves very large, with 
five shallow lobes ; teeth short and obtuse ; light green in color ; 
2b 



370 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

jjlabrous above, wooly beneath. Bunches very large, loose, some- 
times inclined to be straggling, long-conical. Berries large, dull 
purple, oval ; flesh firm and crisp ; skin thick ; flavor and quality 
good. Ripens late and keeps and ships well. 



Empire State 

(Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Empire State (Plate XVII) competes with Niagara and Dia- 
mond for supremacy among green grapes. The variety is as vig- 
orous in growth, as free from parasites, and on vines of the same 
age is as productive, but is less hardy, and the grapes are not as 
attractive in appearance as those of the other varieties named. 
In particular, the clusters are small in some localities, a defect 
which can be overcome only by severe pruning or by thinning. 
The quality is very good, approaching the flavor of the Old 
World grapes, its slight wild taste suggesting one of the Muscats. 
Empire State ripens early, hangs long on the vine and keeps 
well after picking without losing flavor. This grape originated 
with James H. Ricketts, Xewburgh, New York, bearing fruit 
first in 1879. 

Vine vigorous, somewhat tender. Canes short, few, slender, 
brownish ; nodes enlarged ; internodes short ; tendrils intermittent, 
bifid. Leaves small ; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth or 
somewhat rugose ; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent ; 
lobes three to five when present, terminal one acuminate ; petiolar 
sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping ; basal sinus variable 
in depth and width ; lateral sinus deep, narrow, often enlarged at 
base ; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open late ; stamens 
upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylin- 
drical, frequently single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel slender with 
small warts ; brush short, light green. Berries medium or small, 
round, pale yellowish-green, covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm; 
skin thick, adherent to the pulp, slightly astringent ; flesh pale yellow- 
ish-green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, agreeably flavored ; 
good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, broad, notched, 
short, blunt, plump, brown. 




Plate XXVII. — Salem (X§) 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 371 

Etta 

(Vulpiiia, Labrusca) 

In appearance, taste and texture of fruit, Etta is very similar 
to Elvira, of which it is a seedling. The small, yellow clusters 
which characterize Elvira are reproduced in Etta, which differs 
chiefly in having a shoulder quite as large as the main bunch 
itself and in having a better flavor, lacking the slight foxiness of 
Elvira, The vine is very vigorous, harily, and is productive 
to a fault. The fruit ripens with that of Catawba. The 
tendency of Elvira to crack and overbear influenced the 
originator of that variety, Jacob Rommel, INIorrison, Missouri, 
to try for a grape without these faults, and the result was Etta 
from seed of Elvira. The fruit was first exhibited in 1879. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, 
light to dark brown ; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, thick ; 
upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth ; lower surface pale green, 
somewhat cobwebby. Flowers self-fertile, early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters small, short, broad, irregulai'ly 
cylindrical, usually with a short, single shoulder but sometimes so 
heavily shouldered as to form a double bunch, very compact. Berries 
small, round, pale green, dull with thin bloom, shattering when over- 
ripe, fii'm ; skin thin, tender ; flesh juicy, fine-grained, tough, stringy, 
slightly foxy, mild ; fair in quality. Seeds free, long, blunt, brown. 

EUMELAN 
(Labrusca, Vinifera, J^]stivalis) 

Washington 

The good qualities of Eumelan are : vines above the average 
in vigor, hardiness and productiveness; clusters and berries 
well formed, of good size and handsome color ; flesh tender, 
dissolving into wine-like juice under slight pressure ; and pure 
flavor, rich, sweet, vinous. The season is early, yet the fruit 
keeps much better than that of most other grapes maturing 



372 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWINO 

with it and becomes, therefore, a mid-season and late grape. 
The defects of the variety are susceptibility to mildew, self- 
sterile flowers and difficulty in propagation. The latter char- 
acter has greatly hindered its culture, as the vines can be se- 
cured only at extra expense and nurserymen are loath to grow 
the variety at all. Eumelan may be recommended to amateur 
growers. It is a chance seedling whicli grew from seed, about 
1847, in the yard of a Mr. Thorne, Fishkill Landing, New York, 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, covered with 
bloom ; nodes enlarged ; internodes short ; tendrils intermittent, 
long, trifid or bifid. Leaves large ; upper surface dark green, glossy, 
smooth ; lower surface pale green, smooth ; lobes usually three with 
terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus deep, variable in width ; basal 
sinus usually lacking ; lateral sinus shallow, narrow ; teeth shallow. 
Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early, keeps until late winter. Clusters long, slender, tapering, 
often with a long, loose, single shoulder; pedicel short, slender with 
a few small warts ; brush short, stubby, pale green. Berries of medium 
size, round, black, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm ; skin 
tough, adherent with wine-colored pigment, astringent ; flesh dark 
green, juicy, fine-grained, tender, stringy, spicy and aromatic, sweet ; 
good. Seeds adherent, one to four, large, wide, blunt, plump, brown. 

Faith 

(Vulpina, Labrusea) 

Although spoken of as a desirable grape in some regions, Faith 
is of little value in most localities. The fruit is unattractive in 
appearance, and the quality is not high. If the variety has 
any preeminently good character, it is productiveness. The 
blossoms put forth so early that they often sufi^er from spring 
frosts. Faith is of the same breeding as Etta and from the 
same originator, Jacob Rommel, Morrison, IMissouri, both 
having come from seed of Elvira. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, 
thick, cylindrical ; nodes prominent ; internodes long ; tendrils con- 
tinuous, bifid. Leaves large, dark green ; upper surface dark green, 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 373 

dull ; lower surfaf'e grayish-green, thinly pubescent ; lobes wanting or 
faint ; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-sterile to partly self-fertile, 
open earl J' ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, variable 
in length, usually slender, often heavily single-shouldered, loose ; 
pedicel short, slender, warty ; brush pale green, slender. Berries 
small, round, dull green, frequently with a yellow tinge changing to 
pale amber, mth abundant bloom, persistent, soft ; skin thin, adherent, 
astringent ; flesh juicy, tender, agreeably flavored ; fair to good in 
quality. Seeds numerous, broad, dark brown. 

Feher Szagos 

(Vinifera) 

This variety succeeds rather well at Geneva, New York, bear- 
ing fruits of excellent quality-. It has two defects, dull color of 
the berries and irregular bunches. It is worth trying in the 
East. Feher Szagos is said to make a very good raisin in 
California and usually appears in lists of table-grapes for that 
state. 

Vines vigorous, somewhat uncertain bearers. Opening leaves 
pubescent, red along the edges and a tinge of red on the upper surface. 
Flowers have upright stamens. Fruit usually ripens the first week in 
October and does not keep well in storage ; clusters large to medium, 
broad, loose, frequently irregular because of poor setting of fruit ; 
berries large, oval to elliptical, rather dull green, with thin bloom; 
skin thick, tender, neutral ; flesh greenish, translucent, juicy, meaty, 
tender, sweet ; quality of the best ; seeds free. 

Fern Munson 

(Lincecumii, Vinifera, Labrusca) 

Admirable, Fern, Hilgarde, Munson^s No. 76 

Fern Munson is a southern grape not adapted to northern 
regions, 40° north latitude being its limit of adaptation. The 
fruits show some very good characters, as attractive appearance, 
agreeable quality and unobjectionable seeds and skin. The 



374 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

vines are vigorous and productive, but the foliage is not healthy 
although very abundant. This variety originated with T. V. 
Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of Post-oak with mixed 
pollen. The seed was planted in 1885, and the variety was 
introduced by the originator in 1893. 

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy. Canes long, numerous, thick, 
dark brown with a faint red tinge ; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves 
large, thick ; upper surface rugose and heavily ^vrinkled ; lower surface 
dull, pale green with a bronze tinge, faintly pubescent. Flowers semi- 
fertile, open very late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, irregularly tapering, usually 
single-shouldered, often with many abortive fruits. Berries large, 
round, slightly flattened, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with 
thin bloom, strongly persistent, firm ; skin thin, tough, astringent ; 
flesh juicy, tough, firm, fine-grained, vinous, briskly subacid ; good. 
Seeds adherent, broad. 

Flame Tokay 

(Vinifera) 

This is the leading shipping grape of the Pacific slope where 
it is everywhere grown under the name "Tokay," with several 
modifying terms, as "Flame," "Flame-colored" and "Flam- 
ing." The fruit is not especially high in quality nor attractive 
in appearance, but it ships and keeps well, qualities making it 
popular in commercial vineyards. The description is compiled. 

Vine very vigorous, luxuriant in growth of canes, shoots and leaves ; 
very productive ; wood dark brown, straight with long joints. Leaves 
dark green with a brown tinge ; lightly lobed. Bimches very large, 
sometimes weighing eight or nine pounds, moderately compact ; 
shouldered. Bennes large, oblong, red when mature, covered with 
lilac bloom ; flesh firm, cfisp, sweet ; quality good. Season late, 
keeps and ships well. 

Flowers 

(Rotundifolia) 

Flowers is a late, dark-colored Rotundifolia very popular 
in the Carolinas. The variety is noted for its vigorous and 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 375 

productive vines, its large fruit-clusters and grapes that cling 
in the cluster unusually well for a variety of this species. The 
crop ripens in Xortli Carolina in October and November. The 
fruit is valuable only for wine and grape-juice, having little to 
recommend it for dessert purposes. Flowers was found in a 
swamp near Lamberton, North Carolina, more than a hundred 
years ago by William Flowers. Improved Flowers, probably 
a seedling of Flowers, was found near Whiteville, North 
Carolina, about 1869. It differs from its supposed parent in 
having a more vigorous and productive vine and larger 
clusters, the berries of which cling even more tenaciously. 

Vine vigorous, healthy, upright, open, very productive. Canes 
long, slender, numerous. Leaves vai-iable but average medium in size, 
longer than broad, pointed, cordate, thick, dark green, smooth, leath- 
ery ; margins sharply serrate ; flowfers perfect. 

Fruit very late, keeps well. Clusters, large, consisting of ten to 
twenty-five berries. Berries large, round-oblong, purple or purplish- 
black, clinging well to the cluster-stem ; skin thick, tough, faintly 
marked with dots ; pulp white, lacking in juice, hard, sweetish, austere 
in flavor ; poor for a table-grape but excellent for gi-ape-juice. 

Gaertner 

(Vinifera, Labrusea) 

The berries and clusters of Gaertner are large and hand- 
somely colored, making a very showy grape. The plant is 
vigorous, productive and as hardy as any of the hybrids between 
Labrusea and Vinifera. In view of these qualities, Gaertner 
has not received the attention it deserves, probably because it 
is more capricious as to soils than some others of its related 
hybrids. As a market grape, the variety has the faults of 
ripening unevenly and of shipping poorly. The fruit keeps 
well and this, with the desirable qualities noted, makes it an 
excellent grape for the home vineyard. Gaertner is often 
compared with IMassasoit, the two varieties being very similar 



376 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWINO 

in fruit characters, but Gaertner is of distinctly better quality 
than Massasoit. The variety originated with E. S. Rogers, 
Salem, Massachusetts. It was first mentioned about 1865. 

Vine A'igorous, hardy except in severe winters, productive. Canes 
long, dark reddisli-brown, surface covered with thin bloom; tendrils 
continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size, round ; upper 
surface dark green ; lower surface pale green, pubescent. Flowers self- 
sterile, open late ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season, matures unevenly, keeps only fairly well. 
Clusters medium in size, short, cylindrical, usually with a single 
shoulder but sometimes double-shouldered, loose with many abortive 
fruits. Berries large, round-oval, light to dark red, glossy, covered 
with bloom, persistent ; skin thin, tender ; flesh pale green, juicjs 
fine-grained, tough, stringy, agreeably vinous ; good to very good. 
Seeds free, large, broad, distinctly notched, brown. 

Geneva 

(Vinifera, Labrusca) 

Geneva is surpassed by so many other grapes of its season in 
quality that it has never become popular, although it has much 
to recommend it. The vine is vigorous and productive, al- 
though not quite hardy, and the berries and clusters are attrac- 
tive ; the fruit is nearly transparent and there is so little bloom 
that the grapes are a lustrous green or iridescent in sunlight ; the 
berries cling well to the stem and the fruit keeps exceptionally 
well. Geneva originated with Jacob Moore, Brighton, New 
York, from seed planted in 1874 from a hybrid vine fertilized 
by lona. 

Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Canes covered with thin 
bloom ; tendrils intermittent or continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves 
medium in size ; upper surface light green, dull ; lower surface gray- 
ish-white, pubescent ; lobes three to five, acute ; petiolar sinus, 
shallow, wide ; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile or partly 
fertile, open late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, ships well and keeps into the winter. Clusters 
large, blunt at the ends, usually not shouldered, with many abortive 
fruits; pedicel long, slender, smooth; brush long, gi-een. Berries 
large, oval, dull green changing to a faint yellow with thin bloom ; 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 377 

skin thick, tough, unpigmented ; flesh pale green, tender, soft, vinous, 
sweet at skin but tart at center ; fair to good. Seeds of medium size 
and length. 

Goethe 

(Vinifera, Labrusea) 

Of all Rogers' hybrids, Goethe shows Vinifera characters 
most, resembling in appearance the White Malaga of Europe, 
and not falling far short of the best Old World grapes in qualit3\ 
But the variety is difficult to grow, especially where the seasons 
are not long enough for full maturity. The vine is vigorous to a 
fault ; it is fairly immune to mildew, rot and other diseases ; 
and, where it succeeds, the vines bear so freely that thinning 
becomes a necessity. Added to high quality, which makes it an 
excellent table-grape, Goethe keeps well. Goethe was first 
mentioned in 1858 under the name of Rogers' No. 1. 

Vine vigorous, hardy. Canes short, dark brown ; nodes enlarged, 
flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils continuous or intermittent, long, 
bifld to triftd. Leaves irregularly round, thin ; upper surface light 
green, glossy ; lower surface pale green, pubescent ; leaf usually 
not lobed, terminus broadly acute ; petiolar sinus narrow, closed and 
overlapping ; basal sinus usually lacking ; lateral sinus shallow, 
often a notch ; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers partly self-fertile, 
open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters short, broad, tapering, frequently 
single-shouldered, usually two bunches to shoot ; pedicel long, thick 
Avith numerous conspicuous warts ; brush long, slender, yellowish- 
brown. Berries very large, oval, pale red covered with thin bloom, 
persistent ; skin thin, tender, adherent, faintly astringent ; flesh pale 
green, translucent, tender Avith Vinifera flavor ; very good. Seeds 
adherent, one to three, large, long, notched, blunt, brown. 

Gold Coin 

(iEstivalis, Labrusea) 

In the South, where alone it thrives. Gold Coin is a handsome 
market variety of very good quality. The vines are productive 
and are unusually free from attacks of fungal diseases. The 



378 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

variety originated with T. V. Miinson, Denison, Texas, from 
seed of Cynthiana or Norton pollinated by Martha and was 
introduced by the originator in 1S94. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes slender, numerous ; ten- 
drils continuous, sometimes intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves 
medium in size ; upper surface light green, slightly rugose ; lower sur- 
face pale green, tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent. Flowers self- 
fertile ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late mid-season, keeps long. Clusters medium to small, usually 
single-shouldered. Berries large, round-oval, j^ello wish-green with a 
distinct trace of reddish-amber, with thin bloom, usually persistent ; 
skin covered with small, scattering brown dots, thin, tough ; flesh faintly 
aromatic, tart from skin to center; good. Seeds free, numerous, 
medium in size. 

Green Early 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Green Early is a white grape coming in season with Winchell, 
which surpasses it in most characters, quality in particular. 
Green Early was found in 1885, growing by the side of a ditch 
near a Concord vineyard, on land belonging to O. J. Green, 
Portland, New York. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes variable in length and 
thickness, dark reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes 
short ; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid or trifid. 
Leaves variable in size, medium green ; upper surface dark green, 
glossy ; lower surface pale green, pubescent ; lobes wanting or faintly 
five ; teeth shallow, narrow ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters variable in size, length 
and breadth, sometimes single-shouldered, variable in compactness. 
Berries large, oval, light green tinged with yellow, with thin bloom, 
persistent, soft ; skin thin, tender, inclined to crack ; flesh tough and 
aromatic, sweet at skin but acid at center; fair in quality. Seeds 
medium in size, length and breadth, sharp-pointed. 

Grein Golden 
(Vulpina, Labrusca) 
Grein Golden is very similar to Riesling, but the vine is much 
stronger in growth. For a variety of the Taylor group, both 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 379 

cluster and berry are large and uniform, which, with the attrac- 
tive color of the berries, make it a most handsome fruit. The 
flavor, however, is not at all pleasing, being an unusual commin- 
gling of sweetness and acidity very disagreeable to most palates. 
The quality of the fruit condemns it for table use, although it is 
said to make a very good white wine. Nicholas Grein, Her- 
mann, Missouri, first grew Grein Golden about 1875. 

Vine vigorous, hardj% productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, 
dark reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes long ; ten- 
drils intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface 
dark green, dull, smooth ; lower surface pale green, lightly pubescent ; 
lobes lacking or one to three with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus deep, 
narrow ; basal sinus usually lacking ; lateral sinus shallow, "wide, 
obscure ; teeth deep. Flowers self -sterile, open in mid-season ; 
stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, irregular, 
often heavily single-shouldered, loose ; pedicel with a few incon- 
spicuous warts ; brush slender, pale green. Berries uniform in size, 
large, round, golden yellow, glossy with thin bloom, persistent ; skin 
very thin, tender ; flesh green, translucent, very juicy, tender, vinous ; 
good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, plump, light brown. 



Gros Colman 

(Vinifera) 

Dodrelahi 

Gros Colman has the reputation of being the handsomest 
black table-grape grown. It is one of the favorite hot-house 
grapes in England and eastern America and is commonly grown 
out of doors in California. The variety is remarkable for hav- 
ing the largest berries of any roimd grape, borne in immense 
bunches, and for the long-keeping qualities, although the tender 
skins sometimes crack. The following description is compiled : 

Vine ^•igorous, healthy and productive ; wood dark brown. Leaves 
very large, round, thick, but slightly lobed ; teeth short and blunt ; 



380 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

glabrous above, woolly below. Bunches very large, short, well filled 
but rather loose ; berries very large, round, dark blue ; skin thick but 
tender ; flesh firm, crisp, sweet and good ; quality not of the highest. 
Season late and the fruits keep long. 



Hartford 

(Labrusca) 

The vine of Hartford may be well characterized by its good 
qualities, but the fruit is best described by its faults, because 
of which the variety is passing out of cultivation. The 
plants are vigorous, prolific, healthy and the fruit is borne early 
in the season. The canes are remarkable for their stoutness 
and for the crooks at the joints. The bunches are not unat- 
tractive, but the quality of the fruit is low, the flesh being 
pulpy and the flavor insipid and foxy. The berries shell badly 
on the vine and when packed for shipping, so that the fruit does 
not ship, pack or keep well. The grapes color long before ripe, 
and the flowers are only partly self-fertile, so that in seasons 
when there is bad weather during blooming time the clusters 
are loose and straggling. The original vine of Hartford was a 
chance seedling in the garden of Paphro Steele, West Hartford, 
Connecticut. It fruited first in 1849. 

Vine vigorous, very productive. Canes long, dark brown, covered 
with pubescence ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; ten- 
drils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface dark 
green, dull, rugose ; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent ; lobes 
variable ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; basal sinus usually lacking ; 
lateral sinus shallow, narrow ; teeth shallow. Flowers partly self- 
fertile, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early. Clusters medium in size, long, slender, tapering, ir- 
regular, often with a long, large, single slioulder, loose ; pedicel short 
with a few small warts; brush greenish. Bt>rries medium in size, 
round-oval, black, covered with bloom, drop badly ; skin thick, tough, 
adherent, contains much purplish-red pigment, astringent ; flesh gi-een, 
translucent, juicy, firm, stringy, foxy ; poor in quality. Seeds free, 
one to four, broad, dark brown. 




Plate XXVIII. — Triumph (X|). 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 381 

Hayes 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

In 1880, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society awarded 
a certificate of merit to Hayes for high quality in fruit. This 
brought it prominently before grape-growers and for a time 
it was popular, but when better known several defects became 
apparent. The x-ine is hardy and vigorous, but the growth is 
slow and the variety is a shy bearer. Both bunches and berries 
are small, and tlie crop ripens at a time, a week or ten days 
earlier than Concord, when there are many other good green 
grapes. Excellent though it is in quality, the variety is hardly 
worth a place in any vineyard. John B. jMoore, Concord, 
jNIassachusetts, is the originator of Hayes. It is a seedling of 
Concord out of the same lot of seedlings as Moore Early. It 
was first fruited in 1872. 

Vine variable in vigor and productiveness, hardy and healthy. 
Canes numerous, slender ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; 
tendrils interinittent, bifid or trifld. Leaves uniform in size ; upper 
surface dark green ; lower sm'face pubescent ; lobes one to three ; 
teeth shallow, small. Flowers almost self-sterile, open medium late ; 
stamens upright. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters variable in size and length, 
often single-shouldered ; pedicel long, slender ; brush small, pale 
green. Berries medium in size, round, greenish-yellow, covered with 
thin bloom, persistent ; skin thin, tender with a few small reddish- 
brown dots ; flesh fine-gi'ained, tender, vinous, sweet at the skin, 
agreeably tart at center, mild ; good. Seeds few, of average size, 
short, plump, brown. 

Headlight 

(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana) 

Headlight is more desirable for southern than for northern 
vineyards, yet it is worthy of trial in the North. Its meritorious 
characters are : productiveness, outyieldihg Delaware, with 



382 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

which it competes ; disease-resistant foh'age and vines ; more 
than average vigor of vine ; higli quality of fruit, being ahnost 
the equal of Delaware in flaAor and having tender, melting 
pulp which readily parts from the seeds ; and earliness, ripejiing 
before Delaware and hanging on the vines or keeping after being 
picked for some time without deterioration. The originator 
of Headlight, T. ^^ ]Munson, states that the variety came from 
seed of Moyer fertilized by Brilliant. The seed was planted 
in 1895 and the grape was introduced in 1901. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes short, few in num- 
ber, slender, reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged ; internodes short ; 
tendrils continuous, short, bifid, very persistent. Leaves small, 
thick ; upper surface light green, dull, smooth ; lower surface pale 
green, pubescent ; lobes one to three with terminus obtuse ; petiolar 
sinus intermediate in depth and width ; basal sinus usually lacking ; 
lateral sinus shallow, narrow ; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, 
open in mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, short, tapering, frequently 
single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, slender, covered with a 
few small warts ; brush yellowish-brown. Berries small, round, dark 
red with thin bloom, persistent, firm ; skin tough, adherent, astrin- 
gent ; flesh green, translucent, very juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous, 
sweet ; very good. Seeds free, one to three, small, light brown. 

Herbemont 

(Bourquiniana) 

Bottsi, Brown French, Dunn, Herhemonfs Madeira, Hunt, 
Kay's Seedling, McKee, Neal, IJ^arren, Warrenton 

In the South, Herbemont holds the same rank as Concord 
in the North. The vine is fastidious as to soil, requiring a well- 
drained warm soil, and one which is abundantly supplied with 
humus. Despite these limitations, this variety is grown in an 
immense territory, extending from Virginia and Tennessee to 
the Gulf and westward through Texas. The vine is remark- 
ably vigorous, being hardly surpassed in this character by any 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 383 

other of our native grapes. The fruits are attractive because 
of the large bunch and the glossy black of the small berries, 
and are borne abundantly and with certainty in suitable local- 
ities. The flesh characters of the fruit are good for a small 
grape, neither flesh, skin nor seeds being objectionable in eat- 
ing; the pulp is tender, juicy, rich, sweet and highly flavored. 
The ample, lustrous green foliage makes this variety one of the 
attractive ornamental plants of the South. Herbemont is 
known to have been in cultivation in Georgia before the Revo- 
lutionary War, when it was generally called Warren and War- 
renton. In the early part of the last century, it came to the 
hands of Nicholas Herbemont, Columbia, South Carolina, 
whose name it eventually took. 

Vine very vigorous. Canes long, strong, bright green, with more 
or less purple and heavy bloom ; internodes short ; tendrils intermit- 
tent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round, entire, or three to seven- 
lobed, nearly glabrous above and below ; upper surface clear green ; 
lower surface lighter green, glaucous. Flowers self-fertile. 

Fruit very late. Clusters large, long, tapering, prominently 
shouldered, compact ; pedicels short -wath a few large warts ; brush 
pink. Berries round, small, uniform, reddish-black or brown with 
abundant bloom ; skin thin, tough ; flesh tender, juicy ; juice colorless 
or slightly pink, sweet, sprightly. Seeds two to four, small, reddish- 
brown, glossy. 

Herbert 

(Labnxsca, Vinifera) 

In all that constitutes a fine table-grape, Herbert (Plate 
XVIII) is as near perfection as any American variety. For a 
\'inifera-Labrusca hybrid, the vine is vigorous, hardy and 
fruitful, ranking in these respects above many pure-bred 
Labruscas. While the fruit ripens with Concord, it keeps 
much later and packs and ships better. The variety is self- 
sterile and must be set near other varieties. Herbert is 
deserving attention from commercial growers who supply a 



384 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

discriminating market, and its many good qualities give it high 
place as a garden grape. The variety is one of Rogers' hybrids, 
named Herbert in 1869. 

Vine very vigorous, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, 
dark brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes long ; tendrils 
intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round ; upper sur- 
face dark green, dull, smooth ; lower surface pale grcou with some 
pubescence; leaf entire, terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, 
closed, overlapping ; basal and lateral sinuses lacking ; teeth shallow. 
Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, 
two to three clusters per shoot, heavily single-shouldered, loose ; 
pedicel thick with small russet warts ; brush yellowish-green. Berries 
large, round-oval, flattened, dull black, covered with thick bloom, 
persistent, firm ; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent ; flesh light 
green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained ; xevy good. Seeds 
adherent, three to six, large, broad, notched, long with swollen neck, 
blunt, brown with yellow tips. 



Hercules 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Hercules is characterized by very large berries, fruit hand- 
somely colored and cluster large and well-formed. The flavor, 
while not of the best, is good. Added to the desirable ciualities 
of the fruit, the vines are hardy, vigorous and productive. 
These good characters, however, cannot make up for the several 
defects of the variety. The grapes drop and crack badly and 
the pulp is tough and adheres too firmly to the seed for a des- 
sert grape, so that the variety is worthless except for breeding 
purposes. Hercules was introduced by G. A. Ensenberger, 
Bloomington, Illinois, about 1890; its parentage is unknown. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes long, dark 
reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long ; tendrils 
continuous, bifid. Leaves large ; upper surface light green, glossy, 
smooth ; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent ; lobes one to three, 
terminus acute ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; basal sinus usually 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 385 

absent ; lateral sinus shallow ; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, 
open in mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters very large, broad, tapering, 
one to three clusters per shoot, compact ; brush pale green. Berries 
very large, round, black, glossy with heavy bloom, firm ; skin ad- 
herent, astringent ; flesh green, translucent, juicy, very tough, coarse, 
stringy, foxy ; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, large, 
broad, deeply notched, blunt, brown. 

Hicks 

(Labrusca) 

Hicks is a remarkably good grape and were it not that the 
fruit is ahnost identical with that of Concord, ripening with it 
or a little earlier, it would have a place in the viticulture of the 
country. However, since it was introduced some years ago and 
has not found great favor with growers, it seems that it cannot 
make headway against Concord, with which it must compete. 
In many localities the vines are more prolific than those of 
Concord and of stronger growth. Hicks was introduced in 
1898 by Henry Wallis, Wellston, INIissouri, who states that it is 
a chance seedling sent from California about 1870 to Richard 
Berry, a nurseryman of St. Louis County, ^Missouri. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes medium to 
long, numerous, reddish-brown, covered with thin bloom ; tendrils 
continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface dark 
green, glossy ; lower surface white, changing to a heavy bronze, 
strongly pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, open early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, taper- 
ing, often single-shouldered. Berries large, round, purplish-black wth 
heavy bloom, shatter when overripe, firm ; skin tender with dark wine- 
colored pigment ; flesh green, juicy, tough, fine-grained, faintly foxy ; 
good. Seeds adherent, large, short, broad, blunt, brown. 

HroALGO 

(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana) 

The grapes of Hidalgo are rich, sweet, delicately flavored, 
and with color, size and form of berry and bunch so well com- 
.2c 



386 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

bined as to make the fruits singularly handsome. The skin is 
thin but firm and the ^'ariety keeps and ships welL The vines, 
however, are doubtfully luirdy, variable in vigor and not al- 
ways fruitful. While Hidalgo may not i)ro\e of value for the 
commercial vineyard, in favorable situations it may give a 
supply of choice fruit for the amateur. The parentage of 
Hidalgo, as given by its originator. T. Y. ]\runson, is Delaware, 
Goethe and Lindley. The variety was introduced by the 
originator in 1902. 

Vine variable in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes thick, 
dark reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils intermittent 
or continuous, bifid or trifld. Leaves large, irregularly round, thick ; 
upper surface light green, dull, rugose ; lower surface pale green, 
bronzed, heavily pubescent ; lobes tliree when present ; petiolar sinus 
narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping ; basal sinus wanting ; 
lateral sinus shallow, narrow ; teeth very shallow, narrow. Flowers 
semi-fertile, open after mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long, 
slender, cylindi'ical, often blunt, not shouldered, one to two bunches 
per shoot, compact ; pedicel long, slender with small warts ; brush 
yellowish-green with brown tinge. Berries large, oval, greenish-yellow, 
glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thin, tough, adherent, 
astringent ; flesh green, transparent, juicy, tender, melting, aromatic, 
sweet ; very good to best. Seeds free, two to four, large, plump, 
light brown. 

Highland 

(Vinifera, Labrusca) 

Few varieties of black grapes equal Highland in appearance 
and quality of fruit. When given good care under favorable 
conditions, the bimches are unusually large and handsome in 
appearance, sometimes attaining a weight of two pounds, and 
bear beautiful bluish-black berries with the fine flavor and 
tender texture of Jura Muscat, one of its parents. The flesh 
is solid, firm and the fruit keeps and ships well. The vine is 
vigorous, productive to a fault but is doubtfully hardy. Where 
the climate is temperate and the season long enough for the 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 387 

vine and fruit of Highland to develop, this is one of the choicest 
grapes for the amateur. The variety originated about the 
close of the Civil War with J. H. liicketts, Newburgh, New 
York, from seed of Concord fertilized by Jura Muscat. 

Vine variable iu vigor, productive, healthy. Canes long, numerous, 
dark brown with thin bloom ; nodes enlarged ; internodes long ; 
tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large ; upper surface dark 
green, dull, i-ugose ; lower surface gi-ayish-green, pubescent ; lobes 
one to five, terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus deep, variable in width ; 
basal sinus shallow, narrow ; lateral sinus a notch ; teeth deep, wide. 
Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, 
usually single -shouldered, usually two bunches per shoot; pedicel 
long, thick, smooth ; brush gi*een with yellow tinge. Berries large, 
round-oval, purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ; 
skin tough, free ; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, vinous ; good. 
Seeds free, one to six, large, long, notched, brown. 



Hopkins 

(Rotundifolia) 

Hopkins is named by grape-growers in the South Atlantic 
states as the best early Rotundifolia grape. Its season in 
North Carolina begins early in August, nearly a month before 
any other. It is, also, one of the best in quality and for quality 
and earliness should be in every home vineyard in the region 
in which it grows. Hopkins was found near Wilmington, 
North Carolina, about 1845, by John Hopkins. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, slender, up- 
right. Leaves of medium size, variable, cordate, longer than broad, 
thick, leatherj', smooth, dark green ; margins sharply serrate. Flowers 
self -fertile. 

Fruit very early. Clusters large, containing from four to ten 
berries. Berries large, dark purple or almost black, round-oblong, 
shelling badly ; skin thick, tough, faintly marked with dots ; pulp 
white, tender, juicy with a sweet, pleasant flavor ; one of the best of 
the Rotundifolias in quality. 



388 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

HOSFORD 

(Labrusca) 

Hosford is an offspring of Concord, differing from the parent 
chiefly in the greater size of bunch and berry and in being less 
fruitful. The variety is surpassed by Worden and Eaton, of 
the same type, and is probably not worth cultivation. It is 
claimed by some that Hosford is identical with Eaton but there 
are noticeable differences in both vine and fruit characters. 
The vine looks very like that of Concord except that the inden- 
tations along the margins of the leaves are deeper. Hosford 
originated in the garden of George Hosford, Ionia, jNIichigan, 
about 1876, as a chance seedling growing between two Con- 
cord vines. 

Vines lacking in vigor, hardy, unproductive. Canes short, few 
in number, slender ; nodes enlarged ; internodes very short ; tendrils 
continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size ; upper surface 
light green, rugose ; lower surface grayish-white to bronze, heavily 
pubescent ; lobes faint ; petiolar sinus wide ; teeth small, sharp. 
Flowers shallow, semi-fertile, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters large, tapering, 
slightly shouldered, compact ; pedicel short with small warts ; brush 
slender, green. Berries large, round-oval, dull black with abundant 
bloom, persistent ; skin thick, tender ; flesh pale green, juicy, fine- 
grained, tender, vinous, sweet ; good. Seeds few, large, broad, blunt, 
plump, brown. 

Hybrid Franc 

(Vinifera, Rupestris) 

Hybrid Franc is the best-known cross between Rupestris 
and Vinifera. It is one of the few varieties used in Europe 
as a resistant stock now recommended for a direct producer. 
The vines are hardy, vigorous and very productive. The fruit 
is fit only for wine or grape-juice, being too acid to eat out of 
hand. The coloring matter in the fruit is very intense and 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 389 

might be used in giving color to grape products. The variety 
is of French origin. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, thick, light 
brown with bkie bloom ; nodes enlarged ; internodes short ; tendrils 
intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small, thin ; upper surface 
light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface green, hairy along ribs 
and large veins ; lobes three to five with terminal one acute ; petiolar 
sinus narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping ; lateral sinus a notch. 
Flowers semi-fertile, open early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, 
short, cylindrical, smgle-shouldered, compact ; pedicel long, sleiidc? 
with few small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries small, 
oblate, black, glossy with thick bloom, persistent, firm; skin thii:, 
tender with very dark wine-colored pigment ; flesh green with reddish 
tinge, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, spicy, tart ; fair in 
quality. Seeds free, one to five, small, short, light brown* 



Ideal 

(Labrusca, Vinifera, Bourquiniana) 

Ideal is a handsome seedling of Delaware, from which it dif- 
fers chiefly in being larger in bunch and berry, attaining in both 
of these characters nearly the size of Catawba. In Kansas and 
Missouri, this variety is highly recommended, not only for the 
high quality of the fruit, ranking with Delaware in quality, but 
because of vigorous, healthy, productive vines. But farther 
north the vines are precariously hardy and not sufficiently fruit- 
ful, healthy nor vigorous to warrant high recommendation. 
Ideal originated with John Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, from 
seed of Delaware, about 1885. 

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive ; tendrils intermittent, 
bifid or trifid. Canes long, numerous, slender, dark brown ; nodes 
enlarged, flattened ; internodes long. Leaves large, variable in color ; 
lobes three to five ; petiolar sinus deep, wide ; teeth deep, narrow ; 
upper surface light green, dull ; lower surface pale green, pubescent. 

Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, heavily 
shouldered ; pedicel thick ; brush green. Berries large, round, dark 



390 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

red with thin bloom, usually persistent, firm ; skin thick, tough, 
adherent ; flesh green, tender, aromatic, sweet next the skin, acid at 
the center ; good to very good. Seeds adherent, large, plump, brown. 

lONA 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

In flavor, the fruit of lona (Plate XIX) has a rare combina- 
tion of sweetness and acidity, pure, delicate and vinous. The 
flesh is transparent, melting, tender, juicy and of uniform con- 
sistency quite to the center. The seeds are few and small and 
part readily from the flesh. The color is a peculiar dark-red 
wine with a tint of amethyst, variable and not always attrac- 
tive. The buiicji is large but loose, with berries varying in size 
and ripening unevenly. The fruit may be kept until late winter. 
The vine characters of lona are not as good as those of the fruit. 
To do well, the vine must have a soil exactly suited to its wants, 
seemingly thriving best in deep, dry, sandy or gravelly clays, 
lona responds especially well when trained against walls or 
buildings, attaining under such conditions rare perfection. The 
vines are doubtfully hardy and in many parts of the North 
must have winter protection ; they are not vigorous and are in- 
clined to overbear, to remedy which they must have close prun- 
ing. In localities in which mildew and rot thrive, the variety 
is badly attacked by these diseases. lona originated with 
C. W. Grant, lona Island, New York, from seed of Diana planted 
in 1885. 

Vine weak, doubtfully hardy, unproductive. Canes short, light 
brown ; nodes enlarged ; internodes short ; tendrils intermittent, 
bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower 
surface grayish-green, heavily pubescent ; lobes three to five with 
terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus of medium depth and width ; basal 
sinus shallow ; lateral sinus shallow, wide ; teeth shallow. Flowers 
self-fertile, open late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, sometimes double- 
shouldered, slender, tapering, loose ; brush pale green. Berries uni- 




Plate XXIX. — Vergennes (X|). 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 391 

form, oval, round, dull, light and dark red wath thin bloom, persistent, 
firm ; skin tough, adherent, slightly astringent ; flesh green, trans- 
lucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, melting, vinous ; very good. Seeds 
free, one to four, small, bi-oad, plump, brown. 



Isabella 

(Labrusca, Vmifera) 

Alexander, Black Cape, Christie's Improved Isabella, Conch- 
Ihufs Wilding, Constantia, Dorchester, Gibb's Grape, HenselVs 
Long Island, Payne's Early, Ilelene, Woodward 

Isabella (Plate XX) is now of little more than historical inter- 
est, it having been one of the mainstays of American viticulture. 
In appearance, the fruit of Isabella is fully as attractive as that 
of any black grape, the clusters being large and well formed and 
the berries glossy black with thick bloom. The flavor is good, 
but the thick skin and muskiness in taste are objectionable. The 
grapes keep and ship well. Isabella is surpassed in vine char- 
acters by many other kinds, notably Concord, which has taken 
its place. The lustrous green, ample foliage which remains 
late in the season, and the vigor of the vine, make this variety 
an attractive ornamental, well adapted for growing on arbors, 
porches and trellises. The origin of Isabella is not known. 
It was obtained by William Prince, Flushing, Long Island, 
about 1816 from Mrs. Isabella Gibbs, Brooklyn, New York. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous with 
heavy pubescence, thick, light l)rown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; in- 
ternodes short ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves 
thick ; upper surface dark green, smooth, glossy ; lower surface 
whitish-green, heavily pubescent ; lobes three when present with 
terminal lobe obtuse ; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, often closed, 
overlapping ; basal sinus usually wanting ; lateral sinus shallow, 
narrow, frequently notched ; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, 
open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical, 
frequently single-shouldered ; pedicel slender, smooth ; brush long, 



392 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

yellowish-green. Berries medium to large, oval. l)lack with heavy 
bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh 
pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, meaty, some foxi- 
ness, sweet ; good. Seeds one to three, large, broad, distinctly notched, 
short, brown with yellow tips. 

Isabella Seedling 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Isabella Seedling is an early, vigorous, productive offspring 
of Isabella. In fruit characters it greatly resembles its parent, 
but ripens its crop earlier and has a more compact bunch. 
Like that of its parent, the fruit is of good quality and keeps 
remarkably well. This seedling is now grown more than Isa- 
bella and, while not of any considerable commercial importance, 
is far more deserving attention as a market grape than some of 
the poorly flavored kinds more generally grown. There are 
several varieties under this name. Two are mentioned by 
Warder; one of Ohio and one of New York origin. The 
Isabella Seedling here described originated with G. A. Ensen- 
berger, Bloomington, Illinois, in 1889. 

Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick, 
dark brown, often with a red tinge, with thin bloom ; nodes prominent, 
flattened ; internodes long ; tendrils intermittent or continuous, bifid. 
Leaves healthy, large, thick ; upper surface green, dull ; lower surface 
pale green or grayish-green, occasionally with a tinge of bronze, 
pubescent. Flowers self-fertile ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical, 
usually single-shouldered, loose, compact. Berries large, oval, often 
pear-shaped, dull black with thick bloom, persistent, soft ; skin thick 
with some red pigment ; flesh pale green, juicj', tender, coarse, vinous ; 
good. Seeds numerous, free, large, broad, notched, dark brown. 

Israella 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Israella came from C. W. Grant contemporaneously with 
lona and was heralded as the earliest good grape in cultivation. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 393 

For several years after its introduction, it was widely tried but 
was almost everywhere discarded because of the poor quality 
and unattractive appearance of the fruit and lack of ^'igor, 
hardiness and productiveness in the vine. Grant grew Israella 
from seed of Isabella planted in 1885. 

Vine lacking in vigor, unproductive. Canes slender, dark brown ; 
nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils continuous, 
bifid. Leaves large ; upper surface light green, dull, rugose ; lower 
surface pale green, pubescent ; lobes one to five, faint ; petiolar 
sinus deep, narrow ; teeth shallow, sharp ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, of medium length and 
breadth, tapering, often single-shouldered, compact, frequently with 
many abortive fruits. Berries of medium size, round-oval, black or 
purplish-black with thin bloom, inclined to drop, soft ; skin thick, 
tough with a large amount of purplish-red pigment ; flesh pale green, 
juic3% stringy, mild, sweet from skin to center ; fair in quality. Seeds 
free, medium in size, notched, blunt, light brown, often covered with 
grayish warts. 

Ives 

(Labrusca, ^stivalis) 
Ives' Madeira, Ives' Seedlinc], Kiitredge 

Ives has a high reputation as a grape for making red wine, 
being surpassed only by Norton for this purpose. The vine 
is hardy, healthy, vigorous and fruitful. The fruit is poor in 
quality, colors long before ripe, has a foxy odor, and the flesh 
is tough and pulpy. The bunches are compact, with well- 
formed, jet-black grapes, whicli make them attractive. The 
vine is easily propagated and is adapted to any good grape soil, 
but is so rampant in growth that it is difficult to manage. The 
variety is not widely cultivated. Ives was grown by Henry 
Ives from seed planted in 1840 in his garden in Cincinnati, 
Ohio. 

Vine \agorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, thick, 
reddish-brown with thin bloom ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes 
short ; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large ; upper 



394 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

surface dark green, dull, rugose ; lower surface pale green, pubescent ; 
lobes three to five when present with terminal one acute ; petiolar sinus 
deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping ; basal sinus shallow ; 
lateral sinus narrow ; teeth shallow. 

Fruit late mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, tapering, fre- 
quently single-shouldered, compact, often with numerous abortive 
berries ; pedicel slender with numerous small Avarts ; brush short, 
slender, pale with a reddish-brown tinge. Berries oval, jet-black with 
heavy bloom, very persistent, firm ; skin tough, adherent, wine- 
colored pigment, astringent ; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine- 
grained, tough, foxy ; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, often 
abortive, broad, short, blunt, plump, brown. 

James 

(Rotundifolia) 

James is one of the largest of the RotundifoHa grapes and 
probably the best general-purpose variety of this species. The 
vine is noted for vigor and productiveness. It cannot be grown 
north of Maryland. It thrives in sandy loam soils with clay 
subsoil. The variety was found by B. W. M. James, Pitt 
County, North Carolina. It was introduced about 1890 and 
was placed on the grape list of the American Pomological 
Society fruit catalog in 1899. 

Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Canes slender, numerous, 
long, slightly trailing. Leaves of medium size, thick, smooth, leathery, 
cordate, as broad as long, Avith a serrate margin. Flowers open late; 
stamens re flexed. 

Fruit ripens late, hangs on the vine for three weeks, keeps well. 
Clusters small, containing from four to twelve berries, irregular, loose. 
Berries large, three-fourths to ono and one-fourth inches in diameter, 
round, blue-black, marked with specks; skin thick, tough. Pulp 
juicy, sweet ; good in quality. 

Janesville 

(Labrusca, Vulpina) 

Endowed with a constitution enabling it to withstand cold 
to which most other grapes succumb, Janesville has made a 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 395 

place for itself in far northern localities. Moreover, the grapes 
ripen early, being about the first to color although they are not 
ripe until some time after coloring. The vine also is healthy, 
vigorous and productive. The fruit, however, is worthless 
when better sorts can be grown. The clusters and berries are 
small, the grapes are pulpy, tough, seedy, have a thick skin and 
a disagreeable acid taste. Janesville was grown by F. W. 
Loudon, Janesville, Wisconsin, from chance seed planted in 1858. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes spiny, numerous, 
dark brown ; nodes flattened ; internodes long ; tendrils intermittent 
or continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small, thin ; upper sur- 
face glossy, smooth ; lower surface pale green, lightlj^ pubescent ; leaf 
usually not lolled with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus narrow, often 
closed and overlapping ; basal and lateral sinuses lacking ; teeth shal- 
low. Flowers self-fertile, open verj^ early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, short, cylindrical, usually 
single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, slender, covered with small, 
scattering warts ; brush dark wine color. Berries round, dull black 
with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thick, tough, adherent with 
dark wine-colored pigment, astringent ; flesh pale reddish-green, 
translucent, juicy, tough, coarse, vinous, acid ; fair in quality. Seeds 
adherent, one to six, large, broad, angular, blunt, dark brown. 

Jefferson 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Jefferson (Plate XXI) is an offspring of Concord crossed with 
lona, and resembles Concord in vigor, productiveness and 
healthiness of vine, and lona in color and quality of fruit. The 
vine produces its fruit two wrecks later than Concord and is not as 
hardy, faults that debar it from taking high rank as a commer- 
cial grape. Fortunately the vines yield readily to laying down 
for winter protection so that even in commercial plantations it is 
not difficult to prevent winter injury. The bunches of Jefferson 
are large, well-formed, compact with berries of uniform size and 
color. The flesh is firm yet tender, juicy with a rich, vinous 
flavor and a delicate aroma which persists even after the ber- 



396 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ries have dried into raisins. The fruit sliips and keeps well, 
the berries adhering to the cluster and the fruit retaining its 
freshness into late winter. Jefferson is widely distributed and 
is well known by viticulturists in eastern America. It is not 
particular as to localities, if the season be long and the climate 
temperate, and thrives in all soils. The variety originated with 
J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York; it fruited first in 1874. 

Vine vigorous, healthy, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes 
short, numerous, light to dark brown ; nodes enlarged, round ; inter- 
nodes short ; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves 
healthy ; upper surface light green, older leaves rugose ; lower surface 
pale green, strongly pubescent ; leaf usually not lobed with terminus 
acute ; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping ; basal 
sinus usually absent ; lateral sinus shallow, often a mere notch ; teeth 
regular, shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical, usually 
single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, compact ; pedicel 
short, slender with a few inconspicuous warts ; brush long, slender, 
pale yelloAvish-green. Berries medium in size, oval, light and dark red, 
glossy with thin bloom, persistent, very firm ; skin thick, tough, free, 
slightly astringent ; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, coarse-grained, 
tender, vinous ; good to best. Seeds free, one to four, broad, short, 
blunt, plump, brown. 

Jessica 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Jessica is an early, hardy, green grape. The fruit is sweet, 
rich, sprightly and almost free from foxiness, but is imattrac- 
tive and does not keep well. The clusters and berries are 
small, and the clusters are too loose for a good grape. Jessica 
may be commended for earliness and hardiness and is, there- 
fore, desirable, if at all, in northern regions. William H. 
Read, Port Dalhousie, Ontario, grew Jessica from seed planted 
some time between 1870 and 1880. 

Vine medium in vigor, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes long, 
thick, dark brown with red tinge ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; inter- 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 397 

nodes short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, bifid or trifld. 
Leaves small ; upper surface dark green, glossy, often rugose ; lower 
surface pale green, verj' pubescent ; lobes three ; petiolar sinus narrow ; 
teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season ; 
stamens upright. 

P^uit very early. Chisters small, slender, tapering, usually single- 
shouldered. Berries small, round, light green, often tinged with yellow, 
covered with thin bloom, persistent, soft ; skin thin, adherent, faintly 
astringent ; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy, tender, soft, sprightly, 
sweet ; good. Seeds adherent, medium to broad, notched, brown. 

Jewel 

(Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera) 

The notable characters of Jewel are earliness and high quality 
in fruit ; although, as compared with Delaware, its parent, the 
vine is vigorous, healthy and hardy. In form and size of bunch 
and berry. Jewel closely resembles Delaware, but the grapes 
are deep black in color. The flesh characters and flavor of the 
fruit are much like those of Delaware, the pulp being tender 
yet firm, and the flavor having the same rich, sprightly, vinous 
taste found in the parent. The seeds are few and small. The 
skin is thin but tough, and the grapes ship well, keep long, do 
not shell, and although early, hang until frost. Jewel is a 
most excellent grape, worthy the place among black grapes that 
Delaware has among red varieties. In particular, it is recom- 
mended for earliness and for localities in the North where 
standard varieties do not ripen. John Burr, Leavenworth, 
Kansas, grew Jewel from seed of Delaware planted about 1874. 

Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes slender, light 
reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils 
continuous, bifid. Leaves scant, thick ; upper surface light green, 
dull, rugose ; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent ; 
lobes three when present with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus narrow ; 
basal sinus usually lacking ; lateral sinus shallow, wide ; teeth shallow. 
Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early. Clusters small, slender, cylindrical, single-shouldered, 
compact ; pedicel short, slender ; brush short, wine-colored. Bemes 



398 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

medium in size, round, dark purplish-blaok, dull with heavy bloom, 
persistent, firm ; skin thin, tough, adherent, wine-colored pigment ; 
flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, sprightly, 
vinous, sweet ; very good. Seeds adherent, one to four, frequently 
one-sided, blunt, light brown. 



Kensington 

(Vinifera, Vulpina) 

Kensington has several very meritorious fruit and vine 
characters. The vine resembles that of Clinton, its Vulpina 
parent, in vigor, hardiness, growth and productiveness, but 
the fruit has many of the characters of the European parent, 
Buckland Sweetwater. The grapes are yellowish-green, large, 
oval and borne in loose clusters of medium size. In quality 
the fruit of Kensington is not equal to that of Buckland Sweet- 
water but is much better than that of Clinton. The flesh is 
tender and juicy with a rich, sweet, vinous flavor. The hardi- 
ness of the vine and the high quality of the fruit should make 
Kensington a favorite green grape in northern gardens. This 
variety was grown by William Saunders, London, Ontario. 
It was sent out some time between 1870 and 1880. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, slender, light 
brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils persist- 
ent, intermittent or continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves thin ; 
upper surface light green, glossy, smooth ; lower surface pale green, 
pubescent, hairy ; lobes wanting or one to three with terminus obtuse ; 
petiolar sinus narrow ; basal sinus shallow when present ; lateral sinus 
shallow, usually a notch ; teeth deep and wide. Flowers self-fertile, 
open early, stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, cylindrical, often heavily single- 
shouldered, loose, frequently with manj' undeveloped berries ; pedicel 
long and slender with small, inconspicuous warts ; brush short, pale 
green. Berries variable in size, oval, yellowish-green, glossy with 
thin bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thin, tough, adherent, faintly as- 
tringent ; flesh gi-een, transparent, juicy, tender, vinous, sweet ; good. 
Seeds free, two to four, wrinkled, large, long, broad, sharp-pointed, 
yellowish-brown. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 399 

King 

(Labrusca) 

King is similar to Concord, compared with which the vine is 
more vigorous and prolific, time of ripening and length of season 
the same, the clusters are one-fourth larger, the grapes are more 
persistent, the pulp is more tender, the flavor nearly the same 
but more sprightly, the seeds fewer in number, the wood harder 
and of shorter joints and the pedicels larger. King was found 
in the Concord vineyard of W. K. Munson, Grand Rapids, 
Michigan, in 1892. The vine was set for Concord and is sup- 
posed to be a bud-sport of that variety. 

Vine very vigorous, hardj', productive. Canes large, dark reddish- 
brown ; nodes enlarged, slightly flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils 
continuous or intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves unusually large, 
thick ; upper surface green, dull ; lower surface grayish-white changing 
to slight bronze, pubescent ; lobes three when present, terminal one 
acute ; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid- 
season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, irregu- 
larly tapering, usually single-shouldered, compact. Berries large, 
round, black with thin bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thick, tough, ad- 
herent, astringent ; flesh pale green, very juicy, tough, stringy and 
with some foxiness ; good. Seeds adherent, few, large, short, broad, 
lightly notched if at all, blunt, plump, light brown. 

\ 

Lady 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

The vine of Lady is much like that of Concord, its parent, 
although not quite so vigorous nor productive, but ripens its 
fruit fully two weeks earlier. The fruit is much superior to 
that of Concord in quality, being richer, sweeter and less foxy. 
The grapes hang on the vines well but deteriorate rapidly 
after picking. The term, "ironclad," used by grape-growers 
to express hardiness and freedom from disease, is probably 
as applicable to Lady as to any other of the Labrusca grapes. 



400 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

The foliage is dense and of a deep glossy green, neither scald- 
ing under a hot sun nor freezing until heavy frosts, making 
it an attractive ornament in the garden. Lady is deservedly 
popular as a grape for the amateur and should be planted for 
nearby markets. It succeeds wherever Concord is grown, and 
because of its early ripening is especially adapted to northern 
latitudes where Concord does not always mature. Although 
the fruit ripens early, the buds start late, often escaping late 
spring frosts. When Lady was first heard of, it was in the 
hands of a INIr. Imlay, Muskingum County, Ohio. George 
W, Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, introduced it in 1874, 

Vine vigorous, hardy, rapdiiitn in productiveness, healthy. Canes 
short, slender, dark reddish-hrown ; nodes flattened ; internodes short ; 
tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper 
surface light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubes- 
cent ; lobes one to ft^"e with terminal one acuminate ; petiolar sinus 
shallow, wide ; lateral sinus variable in depth and ^vidth ; teeth shallow. 
Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters small, short, slender, 
cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel thick, 
smooth ; brush slender, long, greenish-white. Berries large, round, 
light green, often with a tinge of j^ellow, glossj^ -with thin bloom, 
persistent, firm ; skin covered wth small, scattering, dark dots, thin, 
tender, adherent, astringent ; flesh greenish-white, translucent, juicy, 
tender, aromatic ; very good. Seeds free, few, broad, light brown. 

Lady Washington 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Lady Washington is in many respects a most excellent 
grape but falls short in quality and does not excel in vine char- 
acters. The grapes make a good appearance, keep and ship 
well and are tender, juicy and sweet. The vines are luxuriant, 
hardy, for a grape with Vinifera blood, and healthy although 
slightly susceptible to mildew. As an exhibition grape, few 
green varieties show better when grown with care than Lady 
Washington. In the West and Southwest, the variety is said 




Plate XXX. — Wiiichell ( X f ) • 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 401 

to succeed better than any other Concord seedling. Lady 
Washington is another of J. H. Ricketts' fine seedlings, this 
variety having come from seed of Concord fertilized by Allen's 
Hybrid. It was introduced in 1878. 

Vine vigorous, productive. Canes long, few, thick, dark brown ; 
nodes gi-eatly enlarged, variable in shape ; internodes long ; tendrils 
continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface 
dark green, older leaves strongly rugose, glossy ; lower surface pale 
green, pubescent ; leaf entire Avith terminal acute ; petiolar sinus deep, 
narrow, frequently closed and overlapping ; basal sinus usually want- 
ing ; lateral snius shallow ; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self- 
fertile, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

FVuit late mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, broad, 
irregularly cylindrical, single-shouldered, frequently double-shouldered, 
loose ; pedicel short with numerous conspicuous warts ; brush very 
short, greenish. Berries variable in size, round-oblate, j'ellow-amber, 
glossy with thin bloom, persistent ; skin thin, tender, adherent ; flesh 
pale green, transparent, juicy and tender, stringy, aromatic, sweet ; 
very good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, brown. 



Lenoir 

(Bourquiniana) 

Alabama, Black EI Paso, Black July, Black Spanish, Blue 
French, Burgundy, Cigar Box Grape, Devereaiix, Jack, 
Jacques, July Sherry, Longworth's Ohio, MacCandless, Ohio, 
Springstein, Warren 

Lenoir is a tender southern grape which has been used largely 
in France and California as a resistant stock and a direct 
producer. The fruit is highly valued for its dark red wine and 
is very good for table use. The vine is very resistant to phyl- 
loxera and withstands drouth well. The origin of Lenoir is 
unknown. It was in cultivation in the South as long ago as 
the early part of the last century. Nicholas Herbemont 
states in 1829 that its name was given from a man named 
Lenoir who cultivated it near Stateburg, South Carolina. 
2d 



402 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWINO 

Vine vigorous, thrifty, semi-hardy, productive. Canes numerous, 
with some bloom at the nodes ; tendrils intermittent. Leaves from 
two to seven-lobed, usually five, with characteristic bluish-green color 
above and pale green below. 

Clusters variable, medium to verj^ large, tapering, usiuiUj' shoul- 
dered. Berries small, round, dark bluish-purple, nearly black with lilac 
bloom ; skin thick, tough ; flesh juicy, tender, sweet, very rich in 
coloring matter. 

LiGNAN Blanc 

(Vinifera) 

White July, Luglienga, Joannenc 

At Geneva, New York, Lignan Blanc ripens first of all 
grapes, native or European. It is not of highest quality but 
is better than any other early grape and makes a valuable 
addition to the home vineyard. It is a favorite grape in Europe 
and is rather commonly grown in California. This variety 
offers excellent material for hybridization with native grapes. 

Vine vigorous, medium productive ; buds open early ; opening 
leaves light green, glossy, tinged with red along the edges, thinly 
pubescent. Leaves medium in size, roundish, somewhat dull green, 
slightly rugose ; lower surface glabrous ; blade thick ; lobes usually five 
though sometimes three ; petiolar sinus medium in depth, wide ; lower 
lateral sinus medium in depth, narrow ; upper lateral sinus shallow, nar- 
row ; margin dentate ; teeth long, narrow. Flowers appear early for a 
Vinifera ; stamens upright. 

Fruit ripens the first of September and is a good keeper ; clusters 
above medium in size, tapering, medium compact ; berries medium to 
large, oval, yellowash-green, with thin bloom ; skin thin, tender, 
neutral ; flesh greenish- white, firm, juicy, meaty, sweet ; quality good. 

LiNDLEY 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

By common consent, Lindley (Plate XXII) is the best of the 
red grapes originated by Rogers in his crosses between La- 
brusca and Vinifera. The bunches are of only medium size and 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 403 

are loose, but the berries are well-formed, of uniform size and an 
attractive dark red color. The flesh is firm, fine-grained, juicy, 
tender with a peculiarly rich aromatic flavor. The skin is 
thick and tough but is not objectionable in fruit fully ripe. 
The fruit keeps and ships well, and the berries neither crack 
nor shatter. The vine is vigorous, hardy for a Vinifera 
hybrid, healthy but, as with most of its kind, susceptible to 
mildew. The chief defects of Lindley are self-sterility, preca- 
riousness in bearing and lack of adaptation to many soils. 
Lindley is a general favorite in the garden. In 1869 Rogers 
gave this grape its name in honor of John Lindley, the English 
botanist. 

Vine vigorous, usually hardy, susceptible to mildew. Canes very 
long, dark reddish-brown with thin bloom ; nodes enlarged, usually 
flattened ; internodes long, thick ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or 
trifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface light green, dull, slightly 
rugose ; lower surface gi-ayish-white, pubescent ; obscurely three-lobed 
with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and 
overlapping ; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season ; 
stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters long, broad, 
cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, the shoulder being connected 
to the bunch by a long stem, loose ; pedicel short, slender, smooth ; 
brush short, pale green. Berries large, round-oval, dark-red with 
faint bloom; skin tough, adherent, unpigmented, strongly astringent; 
flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous; 
good to best. Seeds adherent, two to five, notched, brown. 

LUCILE 

(Labrusca) 

In vigor, health, hardiness and productiveness, Lucile (Plate 
XXII) is not surpassed by any native grape. Unfortunately, 
the fruit characters are not so desirable. The size, form and 
color of bunches and berries are good, making a very attractive 
fruit, but the grapes have an obnoxious, foxy taste and odor and 
are pulpy and seedy. Lucile is earlier than Concord, the crop 



404 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ripening with that of Worden or preceding it a few days. 
For an early variety, the fruit keeps well and in spite of thin 
skin ships well. The vine thrives in all grape soils. Lucile 
may be recommended where a hardy grape is desired and for 
localities in which the season is short. J. A. Putnam, Fredonia, 
New York, grew Lucile. The vine fruited first in 1890. It is 
a seedling of Wyoming, which it resembles in fruit and vine 
and surpasses in both. 

Vine vigoi'ous, hardy, very productive. Canes long, light brown ; 
nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils continuous, bifid 
or trifid. Leaves large, firm ; upper surface light green, glossy, 
smooth ; lower surface pale green, pubescent ; leaf with terminus acute ; 
petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping ; 
basal sinus usually absent ; lateral sinus a notch when present ; teeth 
shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical, 
usually single-shouldered, very compact ; pedicel short, thick with 
few, small, inconspicuous warts ; brush light brown. Berries large, 
round, dark red with thin bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thin, tender, 
astringent ; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, stringy, foxy ; 
fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, broad, short, 
blunt, dark brown. 

LUTIE 

(Labrusea) 

Lutie (Plate XXIII) is chiefly valuable for its vine characters. 
The vines are vigorous, hardy, healthy and fruitful, although 
scarcely equaling Lucile in any of these characters. Pomologists 
differ widely as to the merits of the fruit, some claiming high 
quality for it and others declaring that it is no better than a 
wild Labrusea. The difference of opinion is due to a pecul- 
iarity of the fruit ; if eaten fresh, the quality, while far from 
being of the best, is not bad, but after being picked for several 
days it develops so much foxiness of flavor and aroma that 
it is scarcely edible. Lutie is a seedling found by L. C. 
Chisholm, Spring Hill, Tennesse§. It was introduced in 1885. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 405 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes short, slender, 
dark reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged ; internodes short ; tendrils 
continuous, short, bifid. Leaves medium in size ; upper surface dark 
green, rugose ; lower surface bronze or whitish-green, pubescent ; leaf 
usually not lobed with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus deep, wide ; 
basal sinus lacking ; lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present ; 
teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, short, 
broad, blunt, cylindrical, usually not shouldered, compact ; pedicel 
short with small, scattering warts ; brush slender, pale green. Berries 
large, round, dark red, dull with thin bloom, drop badly from pedicel, 
firm ; skin tender, adherent, astringent ; flesh pale green, translucent, 
juicy, tough, foxy ; faiT in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, 
large, broad, short and blunt, dark brown. 



Malaga 

(Vinifera) 

Malaga is one of the favorite table-grapes in California and 
also a popular grape to ship to eastern markets. In some 
parts of southern California, where the Muscats do not thrive, 
it is much grown, and in the San Joaquin Valley it is rather 
largely used in making raisins. It requires a long season and 
probably could not be grown in eastern regions except in the 
most favored localities. The description is compiled. 

Vine very vigorous, healthy and productive ; wood reddish-brown, 
short-jointed. Leaves of medium size, smooth, leathery ; light glossy 
green above, lighter below ; deeply lobed. Bunches very large, long, 
loose, shouldered, sometimes scraggly ; stem long and flexible ; berries 
very large, oval, yellowish-green, covered with light bloom ; skin 
thick ; flesh firm, crisp, sweet and rich ; quality good. Season late, 
keeps and ships well. 

McPiKE 

(Labrusca) 

McPike is noteworthy because of the large size of the berries 
and bunches. It is very similar to its parent, Worden, differ- 



406 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ing in having fewer but larger berries, grapes not as high in 
flavor and fewer and smaller seeds. Because of the thin, tender 
skin, the berries crack badly. The grapes shell more or less, 
and the \'ines are less producti^■e than those of Worden. The 
faults named debar it from becoming a commercial grape 
and it is not high enough in quality to make it of value for 
the amateur. This variety originated with H. G. McPike, 
Alton, Illinois, from seed of Worden planted in 1890. 

Vine vigorous, liardy, very produeti-\-e. Canes of medium length, 
dull reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes very- 
short ; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick ; 
upper surface light green, dull, rugose ; lower surface grayish-white, 
heavily pubescent ; leaf entire w\\h terminus acute ; petiolar sinus 
deep ; basal and lateral sinuses lacking. Flowers nearly self-fertile. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, broad, 
irregularly tapering, usually not shouldered ; pedicel long, thick, 
smooth ; brush long, slender, green with brown tmge. Berries unusu- 
ally large, round, purplish-black with heavj' bloom, firm ; skin cracks, 
adherent to pulp, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, 
tender, stringy, vinous ; fan- to good. Seeds adherent, one to four, 
short, broad, blunt, plump, light brown. 



Marion 

(Vulpina, Labrusca) 

Black German, Marion Port 

INIarion so closely resembles Clinton in botanical and horti- 
cultural characters as to be clearly of the same type. The 
vine is vigorous and hardy, but hardly sufficiently productive, 
and is susceptible to mildew and leaf-hoppers. The fruit 
is pleasantly sweet and spicy, although not high enough in 
quality for a table-grape, but makes a very good dark red wine. 
The fruit colors early but ripens late, hangs well on the vines 
and improves with a touch of frost. Marion was brought 
to notice by a Mr. Shepherd, Marion, Ohio, about 1850. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 407 

Vine ^'igorolls, hardy, productive. Canes very long;, dark reddish- 
brown, covered with hk)om ; nodes enlarged, flattened; inlernodes 
very long; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, long, bifid. 
Leaves very large ; upper surface dark green, glossy ; lower surface 
pale green, smooth ; leaf entire, terminus acuminate ; petiolar sinus 
very deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping ; basal and lateral 
sinuses usually lacking ; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-sterile, 
open very early ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, short, 
slender, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, slender 
with a few inconspicuous warts ; brush very short, wine-colored. 
Berries small, round, black, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ; 
skin thin, tough, adherent with much wine-colored pigment, astrin- 
gent ; flesh dark green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, sprightly, 
spicy, tart ; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, medium in 
size, broad, short, very plump, brown. 



Martha 

(Labrusea, Vinifera) 

Martha was at one time a popular green grape, but the 
introduction of superior varieties has reduced its popularity 
until now it is but little grown. It is a seedling of Concord 
and resembles its parent, differing chiefly as follows : fruit 
green, a week earlier, bunch and berry smaller, flavor far 
better, being sweeter, more delicate and less foxy. The \'ine 
of Martha is a lighter shade of green, is less robust, and the 
blossoms open a few days earlier than those of Concord. One 
of the defects of INIartha, and the chief cause of its going out 
of favor, is that it does not keep nor ship well. The variety 
is still being planted in the South but is generally abandoned 
in the North. Samuel Miller, Calmdale, Pennsylvania, grew 
jNIartha from seed of Concord; it was introduced about 1868. 

Vine hardy, productive, susceptible to attacks of mildew. Canes 
long, dark reddish-brown, surface with thin bloom, roughened ; nodes 
enlarged, slightly flattened ; tendrils continuous, or intermittent, bifid. 
Leaves large, thick ; upper surface light green ; lower surface light 



408 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

bronze, heavily pubescent ; lobes wanting or faint ; petiolar sinus 
shallow, very wide ; teeth irregular. Flowers self-fertile, open in 
mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early mid-season. Clusters medium in size, tapering, single- 
shouldered, loose; pedicel short, slender; brush very short, green. 
Berries medium in size, round, light green wdth thin bloom, persistent ; 
skin thin, \'ery tender, adherent ; liesh pale green, juicy, tough, fine- 
grained, slightly foxy ; very good. Seeds few in number, adherent, 
broad, blunt, dark brown. 



Massasoit 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Massasoit is distinguished as the earliest of Rogers' hybrids, 
ripening with Delaware. The grapes have the peculiarity 
of being best before full maturity, developing, after ripening, 
a degree of foxiness which impairs the quality. In shape and 
size of berry and bunch, there is a striking resemblance to 
Isabella, but the color is that of Catawba. The texture of 
the fruit is especially good, firm but tender and juicy, while 
the flavor is rich and sweet. The vine is vigorous, hardy and 
productive but subject to mildew and rot. Massasoit is worth 
a place in the home vineyard and as an early grape of fine 
quality for local markets. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive, subject to rot and 
mildew. Canes long, thick, dark brown wth reddish tinge ; nodes 
enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, long, trifid or bifid. Leaves 
variable in size ; upper surface light green, dull, smooth ; lower sur- 
face pale gi-een, pubescent ; lobes three to five with terminus acute ; 
petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; basal sinus shallow, narrow, obscure ; 
teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open late ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, broad, cylin- 
drical, frequently single-shouldered ; pedicel slender with a few in- 
distinct warts ; brush pale green. Berries large, round-oval, dark 
brownish-red, dull with thin bloom, very persistent, firm ; skin thin, 
tender, adherent, astringent ; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, 
fine-grained, soft, stringy, foxy ; good to very good. Seeds adherent, 
one to five, large, broad, distinctly notched, plump, blunt. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 409 

Maxatawney 

(Labrusea, Vinifera) 

While at one time very popular, grape-growers now seldom 
hear of Maxatawney. It is a southern grape, ripening its 
fruit in the North only occasionally. The variety is interesting 
historically as being the first good green grape and as showing 
unmistakable Vinifera characters, another example of the 
fortuitous hybridization which gave so many valuable varieties 
before artificial hybridization of Vinifera with native grapes 
had been tried. In 1843, a man living in Eagleville, Pennsyl- 
vania, received several bunches of grapes from IMaxatawney. 
The seeds of these grapes were planted and one grew, the result- 
ing plant being the original vine of Maxatawney. 

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, variable in productiveness. 
Canes medium in length, slender, reddish ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; 
internodes short ; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, dark 
green, thick ; lower surface grayish-white with tinge of bronze, heavily 
pubescent ; lobes three to five ; petiolar sinus narrow ; teeth shallow. 
Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters small to medium, short, slender, 
cylindrical, occasionally with a small, single shoulder, compact ; 
pedicel long, slender, warty ; brush long, yellow. Berries variable in 
size, oval, pale red or dull green \\dth amber tinge, with thin bloom, 
persistent ; skin tough, astringent ; flesh tender, foxy ; good to very 
good. Seeds free, few, large, very broad, blunt. 

Memory 

(Rotundifolia) 

Memory is one of the best of the Rotundifolia grapes for 
the garden and local markets, its fruits being especially good 
for dessert. As yet, however, the variety has not been widely 
distributed even in North Carolina where it originated. The 
vine is given credit for being the most vigorous grower and 
the most productive of the grapes of its species. INIemory 
is probably a seedling of Thomas, which it much resembles, 



410 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

having been found in a vineyard of Thomas grapes near White- 
ville, North Carolina, by T. S. Memory, about 1868. 

Vine very vigorous, healthy, productive. Leaves large, longer 
than broad, thick, smooth with coarsely serrate margins. Flowers 
perfect. 

Fruit ripens in September in North Carolina ; clusters large, with 
from four to twelve berries which hang unusually well for a variety of 
V. Rotundifolia. Berries very large, round-oblong, deep brownish- 
black, almost jet black ; skin thick ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet ; good 
to best. 

Merrimac 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Merrimac is often accredited as the best black grape among 
Rogers' hybrids, but an analysis of the characters of the several 
black varieties grown by Rogers shows that it is surpassed 
by Wilder, Herbert and possibly Barry. The vine is strong 
in growth, productive, hardy and exempt from fungal diseases ; 
but the grapes are not high in quality, and flesh, skin and 
seed characters are such that the fruit is not as pleasant to 
eat as the other black varieties named. Merrimac is worthy 
a place in collections for the sake of variety. Rogers gave this 
variety the name Merrimac in 1869. 

Vine vigorous, usually hardy, productive. Canes slender, dark 
brown, surface roughened ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes 
short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid. Leaves large, thin; upper 
surface very light green, glossy, smooth ; lower surface pale green, 
pubescent and cobwebby ; lobes three with terminal one obtuse ; 
petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping ; basal 
sinus usually lacking ; lateral sinus shallow, narrow ; teeth shallow. 
Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters variable in size, 
broad, tapering ; pedicel slender, covered with numerous inconspicuous 
warts; brush wine-colored. Berries large, round, black, glossy with 
abundant bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thick, tough, adherent, astrin- 
gent ; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, stringy ; 
good. Seeds adherent, one to five, broad, long, with enlarged neck, 
brown. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 411 

Mills 

(Labrusf'a, Vinifera) 

The bunches and berries of Mills are large and well-formed ; 
the berries are firm and solid, with the skin adherent as in Vi- 
niferas ; the flesh is juicy and parts readily from the seeds ; the 
flavor is rich, sweet and vinous ; and the grapes are hardly 
surpassed in keeping quality. But when the fruit characters 
of Mills have been praised, nothing further can be said in its 
favor. The vines are neither vigorous, hardy nor fruitful and 
are very subject to mildew ; neither wood nor roots ripen well 
in the North in average seasons ; and the variety is a most 
difficult one for nurserymen to grow. Mills is of doubtful 
commercial value, but for the garden it is possible that the 
grower may be able to graft it to advantage on some variety 
Avith better vine characters. William H. Mills, Hamilton, 
Ontario, grew Mills about 1870 from seed of Muscat Hamburg 
fertilized by Creveling. 

Vine medium in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes long, 
thick, light brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils intermittent, 
bifid or trifld. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface dark green, dull, 
rugose ; lower surface pale green, cobwebby ; lobes three to five with 
terminus acute ; petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width ; basal 
and lateral sinuses deep and wide ; teeth deep. Flowers self-fertile, 
open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cy- 
lindrical, often double-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with nu- 
merous, small warts ; brush long, wine-colored. Berries large, oval, 
jet-black ^^'^th abundant bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thick, tough, 
adherent ; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, rich, tender, sprightly, 
vinous, sweet ; very good to best. Seeds free, one to three, large, brown. 

MiSH 

(Rotundifolia) 

Mish is a favorite Rotundifolia in North Carolina, being 
planted extensively in some parts of that state. Its outstand- 



412 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ing characters are vigor and productiveness in ^ ine and high 
quahty in the fruit. Mish is named by many as the best all- 
round Rotundifolia, being of value for dessert, wine and grape- 
juice. The variety was found by W. M. Mish, about 1846, 
near Washington, North Carolina. 

Vine very \'igorous, productive, healthy, open in growth ; canes 
somewhat trailing. Leaves large, round, thick, smooth, leathery with 
coarsely dentate margin. Flowers perfect. 

Fruit late, does not ripen uniformly, keeps and ships well. Clusters 
of medium size wnth from six to fifteen berries which cling well to the 
pedicel. Berries of medium size, round-oval, deep reddish-black 
with numerous conspicuous dots ; skin thin, cracking in wet weather ; 
flesh tender, juicy, sweet, exceptionally well flavored ; very good to 
best. 

Mission 

(Vinifera) 

Of all grapes. Mission has probably played the most impor- 
tant part in the vineyards of California. Grown from the 
earliest times at the old missions, its source or its name has 
never been determined. Its viticultural value for table and 
wine-press was early appreciated by California grape-growers, 
and its culture rapidly spread to every county in the state 
adapted to grape-growing. With vines vigorous, healthy and 
productive, bearing grapes of delicious quality, INIission is 
a mainstay on the Pacific slope, surpassed by few vineyard 
varieties for general usefulness. The description is compiled. 

Vine vigorous, healthy, productive; wood short-jointed, grayish- 
brown, dull, dark. Leaf medium to large, slightly oblong, Avith large, 
deeply-cut compound teeth ; basal sinus widely opened, primary 
sinuses narrow and shallow ; smooth on both sides with scattered 
tomentum below, bright green above, lighter below. Bunch divided 
into many small, distinct lateral clusters, shouldered, loose, sometimes 
very loose ; berries of medium size, purple or almost black with heavy 
bloom ; skin thin ; flesh firm, crisp, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious. 
Seeds rather large and prominent ; season late, 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 413 

Missouri Riesling 

(Vulpina, Labrusca) 

Missouri Riesling attains perfection only in tlie South. 
The vines are hardy, vigorous, productive and healthy in the 
North, as a rule, but the fruit is lacking in quality. In the 
South, Missouri Riesling is a beautiful fruit when well grown 
and has many good qualities of fruit and vine. It originated 
with Nicholas Grein, Hermann, Missouri, about 1870, probably 
from seed of Taylor. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes very long, numerous, 
thick, dark brown ; nodes enlarged ; internodes long ; tendrils contin- 
uous, long, trifld or bifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface dark 
green, glossy, smooth ; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent ; 
lobes five with terminal one acuminate ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; 
basal sinus shallow, wide ; lateral sinus deep, wide ; teeth deep, wide. 
Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, does not keep nor ship well. Clusters short, cylin- 
drical, single-shouldered ; pedicel long with few small warts ; brush 
green. Berries of medium size, round, yellowish-green changing to 
light red with thin bloom, persistent, fu-m ; skin sprinkled Avith small 
brown dots, thin, tough, adherent, astringent ; fiesh pale green, trans- 
lucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, lackmg in aroma, mild ; fair in 
quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, surface rough, dark brown. 



MONTEFIORE 

(Vulpina, Labrusca) 

Montefiore is extensively grown in Missouri and the South- 
west but is almost unknown in the North and East. It is 
reported as succeeding in the Lake District of Ohio and, with 
the exception that it is uncertain in bearing and not always 
productive, it grows well in sections of New York. While it 
is essentially a wine-grape, yet it is pleasing in taste and texture 
of fruit and is far better in quality than many of the coarser 
Labruscas commonly cultivated. It keeps and ships well 



414 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

and presents an attractive appearance. Jacob Rommel, 
INlorrison, INlissouri, grew this ^•ariety about 1875 from seed 
of Taylor fertilized by Ives. 

Vine vigorous and hardy. Canes long, thick, dark brown with tliin 
bloom ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes long ; tendrils contin- 
uous, long, bifid. Leaves thick ; upper surface light green, dull, 
smooth ; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent ; lobes tlu"ee when 
present with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus wide ; basal sinus lacking ; 
lateral sinus shallow when present ; teeth deep. Flowers semi-fertile, 
open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, short, tapering, 
single-shouldered, the shoulder being connected to the bunch by a long 
stem, compact ; pedicel short, slender, smooth ; brush red. Bemes 
small, oval, often compressed, black, glossy with abundant bloom, per- 
sistent, firm ; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent ; flesh green, 
translucent, juicy, fine-gi-ained, tender, melting, vinous, sweet ; fair 
to good. Seeds free, one to five, small, broad, faintly notched, short, 
plump, brown. 

Moore Early 

(Labrusca) 

Moore Early (Plate XXIV) is the standard grape of its season. 
Its fruit cannot be described better than as an early Concord. 
The vines are readily distinguishable from those of Concord, 
differing chiefly in being less productive. To grow the variety 
satisfactorily, the soil must be rich, well-drained and loose, 
must be frequently cultivated, and the vines should be pruned 
severely. The bunches of Moore Early are not as large as 
those of Concord and are less compact ; the berries shell rather 
more easily, and the skin cracks more readily. The 
flesh characters and the flavor are essentially those of Con- 
cord, although the quality is not as high as in the older variety. 
The quality is, however, much higher than that of Chan pion 
and Hartford, its chief competitors, and varieties which it 
should replace. Moore Early is by no means an ideal grape 
for its season, but until something better is introduced it will 
probably remain the best early commercial sort. Captain 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 415 

John B. Moore, Concord, Massachusetts, originated this vari- 
ety from seed of Concord, planted about 1868. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, unproductive. Canes short, dark reddish- 
brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils contin- 
uous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, 
dull ; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent ; leaf 
usually not lobed, terminus acute ; petiolar sinus wide ; basal sinus 
lacking ; lateral sinus a notch when present ; teeth shallow, narrow. 
Flowers fertile, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit earl3% does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, length, 
and breadth, cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, loose ; pedicel 
short, thick, smooth ; brush short, pale green. Berries large, round, 
purplish-black, firm ; skin tender, adherent ; flesh green, translucent, 
juicy, fine-grained, tough with slight foxiness ; fair to good. Seeds 
one to four, large, broad, plump, blunt, brown with yellow tinge at tips. 

MOSCATELLO 

(Vinifera) 
Moscatello Nero. Black Muscat 

Beautiful in appearance and having a delicate Muscat 
taste and aroma, this variety is one of the good table-grapes of 
the Pacific slope. Unfortunately it ripens so late that it is 
hardly worth trying in the East. The variety has the reputa- 
tion of being very productive. The description is compiled. 

Vine vigorous, healthy, very productive. Leaves of medium size, 
with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses ; glabrous above, slightly 
downy below, very hairy on the veins, wth long, sharp teeth. Bunch 
large to very large, long, loose, conieo-cylindrical, winged ; berries 
very large, borne on long slender pedicels, dark purple, almost black ; 
skin thin but tough ; flesh rather soft, juicy ; flavor sweet, rich, 
aromatic, musky ; quality very good. Season late, does not keep well. 

MOYER 

(Labrusca, Bourquiniana) 

Jordan, Moyer's Early Red 

Moyer is almost a counterpart of its parent, Delaware. 
Were it not that the varietv is from one to two weeks earlier 



416 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

than Delaware, and somewhat hardier, hence better adapted 
for cold regions, it could have no place in viticulture. Com- 
pared with Delaware, the vine is hardly as vigorous and is 
less productive, but is freer from rot and mildew. The bunches 
are much like those of Delaware but have the fault of setting 
fruit imperfectly even when cross-pollination is assured ; the 
berries are a little larger, of much the same color and of like 
flavor, rich, sweet, with pure vinousness and without a trace 
of foxiness. The fruit keeps well, ships well and does not crack 
nor shell. Moyer is well established in Canada, proving per- 
fectly hardy wherever Concord is grown, possibly standing 
even more cold. W. H. Read, Port Dalhousie, Ontario, 
raised the original vine of Moyer, about 1880, from seed of 
Delaware fertilized by Miller's Burgundy. 

Vine vigorous, hard}', healthy, unproductive. Canes numerous, 
slender, dull, dark reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; inter- 
nodes short ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small ; 
upper surface dark green, dull, smooth ; lower surface pale green or with 
faint blue tinge, heavily pubescent ; lobes two to five with terminus 
acute ; petiolar sinus shallow ; basal sinus shallow when present ; 
lateral sinus shallow, narrow ; teeth very shallow, narrow. Flowers 
self-sterile, open early ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early, keeps well but loses color if kept too long. Clusters 
small, short, slender, tapering, sometimes single-shouldered ; pedicel 
short with small warts ; brush yellowish-green. Berries small, oblate, 
dark red with faint bloom, persistent, firm ; skin tough, free, astrin- 
gent ; flesh translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous ; good to 
very good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, short, very blunt, brown 
with yellow tinge at tips. 

Muscatel 

(Vinifera) 

Wliite Frontignan 

This old and standard sort is rather commonly grown in 
some of the grape regions of California to follow Chasselas 




Plate XXXI. — Worden ( X |) • 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 417 

Golden. It might be tried with some show of success in favored 
grape regions in the East. The description is compiled. 

Vine of medium size, vigorous, healthy ; canes strong, spreading, 
reddish-brown with short internodes. Leaves of medium size, thin, 
flve-lobed ; glabrous except on the lower sides of the well-marked ribs 
where a few hairs show. Bunches long, cylindrical, regular, compact ; 
berries round, golden-yellow becoming amber ; flavor sweet, rich, 
aromatic, peculiar ; quality very good. Season late mid-season, keeps 
and ships well. 

Muscat Hamburg 

(Vinifera) 

Muscat Hamburg (Plate XXV) is an old European grape well 
known in some parts of America in greenhouse graperies, since 
it is one of the best for forcing. All who know the beautiful 
fruits of this variety grown in forcing-houses will want to test 
it out of doors, where at the Geneva, New York, Experiment 
Station, they have done well, many clusters attaining a 
weight of a pound and a half to two pounds. The accom- 
panying plate, the fruit much less than half natural size, 
shows what a fine grape Muscat Hamburg is. One is struck 
with wondering admiration at a vine laden with these grapes 
growing alongside Concord, Niagara or Delaware. The quality 
is delectable, the quintessence of the flavors and aromas which 
make the grape a favorite fruit. The grapes keep long and 
retain their form, size, color and rich, delicate flavor almost to 
the end. This variety is a treasure to the amateur; and the 
professional who wants another grape for local markets should 
try grafting over a few vines of some native to this sort, fol- 
lowing the directions given in Chapter X in caring for the 
vines. 

Vines vigorous, tender, need protection during the winter ; canes 
long, numerous, slender to medium, light brown, darker at the nodes 
which are enlarged and flattened. Leaves medium to large, inter- 
mediate in thickness ; upper surface light green, dull ; lower surface 
pale green, faintly pubescent, densely hairy. 
2e 



418 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Fruit ripens in October, ships and keeps well ; clusters very 
large, long, broad, tapering, single or double-shouldered. Berries large, 
firm, oval, very dark purplish-red, covered with lilac bloom, very 
persistent ; skin thick, adheres strongly to the pulp ; flesh pale green, 
translucent, meaty, very juicy, tender, vinous, musky, sweet, rich ; very 
good to best ; seeds separating easily from the pulp, large. 



Muscat of Alexandria 

This is possibly the leading table- and raisin-grape of the 
Pacific slope. From the literature or from a visit to vineyards, 
one cannot make out whether one or several varieties are grown 
under the name. Probably there are several strains grown under 
the distinctive name "jNIuscat" which applies to these sweet, 
light yellow, musky grapes. This is one of the standard 
sorts to force indoors but requires too long a season for out of 
doors in the East. The following description is compiled : 

Vine short, straggling, bushy, sometimes forming a bush rather 
than a vine, very productive ; wood graj' with dark spots, short- 
jointed. Leaf round, flve-lobed ; bright green above, lighter gi'een 
below. Bunches long and loose, shouldered; berry oblong, light 
yellow and transparent when fully mature, covered with white bloom ; 
flesh firm, ci'isp ; flavor sweet and very musky ; quality good. Season 
late, the laterals producing a second and sometimes even a third crop. 

Niagara 

(Labi'usca, Vinifera) 

Niagara (Plate XXVI) is the leading American green grape, 
holding the rank among grapes of this color that Concord main- 
tains among black varieties. It is, however, a less valuable 
grape than Concord, and it is doubtful whether it should be 
ranked much higher than several other green grapes. In vigor 
and productiveness, when the two grapes are on equal footing as 
to adaptability, Niagara and Concord rank the same. In hardi- 
ness of root and vine, Niagara falls short of Concord ; it cannot 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 419 

be relied on without winter protection where the thermometer 
falls below zero. Niagara has much of the foxiness of the 
wild Labrusca, distasteful to many palates. Both bunches 
and berries of Niagara are larger than those of Concord and 
are better formed, making a handsomer fruit if the colors are 
liked equally well. The fruit shells as badly as that of Con- 
cord and does not keep longer. Both vine and fruit of Niagara 
are more susceptible to fungal diseases than those of Concord, 
especially to black-rot, which proves a veritable scourge with 
this variety in unfavorable seasons. Niagara was produced 
by C. L. Hoag and B. W. Clark, Lockport, New York, from 
seed of Concord fertilized by Cassady planted in 1868. 

Vine vigorous, lacking in hardiness, very productive. Canes long, 
thick, reddish-brown deepening in color at the nodes which are enlarged 
and slightly flattened ; internodes long, thick ; tendrils continuous, 
long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface glossy, dark 
green, smooth ; lower surface pale green, pubescent ; lobes three to 
five with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus of medium depth and width ; 
basal sinus shallow, wide, often toothed ; lateral sinus wide, freqixently 
toothed ; teeth shallow, variable in width. Flowers self-fertile, open 
in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, 
frequently single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel thick with a few, 
small, inconspicuous warts ; brush pale gi-een, long. Berries large, 
oval, pale yellowish-green with thin bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thin, 
tender, adherent, astringent ; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, 
fine-grained, tender, foxy ; good. Seeds free, one to six, deeply 
notched, brown. 

Noah 

(Vulpina, Labrusca) 

Noah is little grown at present outside of Missouri, where 
it is still planted somewhat. Noah and Elvira are often con- 
fused but there are very marked differences. The clusters of 
Elvira are smaller, the berries are more foxy in taste, and the 
skins are more tender and crack more readily than do those of 
Noah. The large, dark, glossy green leaves make the vines of 



420 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

this variety very handsome. As with Elvira and other varieties 
of this group, Noah is of little value in the North. It origi- 
nated with Otto Wasserzieher, Nauvoo, Illinois, from seed of 
Taylor planted in 1869. 

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes long, thick, 
dark brown, surface roughened ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils 
continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large ; upper surface dark green, 
glossy, smooth ; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent ; leaf 
usually not lobed with terminus acuminate ; petiolar sinus deep, wide ; 
basal sinus lacking ; lateral sinus very shallow when i^resent ; teeth 
shallow, wide. Flowers semi-fertile, open early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late mid-season, does not ship nor keep well. Clusters variable 
in size, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short with a 
few small warts ; brush short, brown. Berries small, round, Ught 
gi'een tinged with, yellow, dull with tliin bloom, firm ; skin adherent to 
pulp ; flesh yellowish-green, translucent, juicy, tough, fine-grained, 
vinous, sprightly ; good. Seeds adherent, one to foui-, dark brown. 



Northern Muscadine 

(Labrusca) 

That this variety, together with Lucile, Lutie and other 
grapes with the foxy taste strongly marked, has not become 
popular, in spite of good vine characters, is evidence that the 
American public do not desire such grapes. In appearance of 
fruit, Northern ]\Iuscadine is much like Lutie, the two being 
distinguished from other grapes by an unmistakable odor. A 
serious defect of the fruit is that the berries shatter badly as 
soon as they reach maturity. Taken as a whole, the vine 
characters of this variety are very good and offer possibilities 
for the grape-breeder. The variety originated at New Lebanon, 
New York, and was brought to notice by D. J. Hawkins and 
Philemon Stewart of the Society of Shakers about 1852. 

Vine vigorous, productive, healthy, hardy. Canes slender, dark 
brown, heavily pubescent ; tendrils continuous, bifid, dehisce early. 
Leaves large, round, thick ; upper surface dull, rugose ; lower surface 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 421 

dark bronze, heavily pubescent. P'lowers self-fertile, open in mid- 
season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters medium in 
size, short, occasionally single-shouldered, compact. Berries large, 
oval, dark amber with thin bloom, drop badly from the pedicel ; skin 
tough, adherent, astringent ; flesh pale green, juicy, fine-grained, 
tender, soft, very foxy, sweet ; poor in quality. Seeds free, numerous, 
large, broad, faintly notched, long, brown. 



Norton 

(^stivalis, Labrusca) 

Norton is one of the leading wine-grapes in eastern America, 
the fruit having small value for any other purpose than wine 
or, possibly, grape-juice. The vine is hardy but requires a 
long, warm season to reach maturity so that it is seldom grown 
successfully north of the Potomac. Norton thrives in rich 
alluvial clays, gravels or sands, the only requisite seemingly 
being a fair amount of fertility and soil warmth. The vines 
are robust; very productive, especially on fertile soils ; as free, 
or more so, from fungal diseases as any other of our native 
grapes ; and are very resistant to phylloxera. The bunches are 
of but medium size and the berries are small. The grapes are 
pleasant eating when fully ripe, rich, spicy and pure-flavored 
but tart if not quite ripe. The variety is difficult to propagate 
from cuttings and to transplant, and the vines do not bear 
grafts well. The origin of Norton is uncertain, but it has been 
under cultivation since before 1830, when it was first described. 

Vine very vigorous, healthy, half-hardy, productive. Canes long, 
thick, dark brown with abundant bloom ; nodes much enlarged ; inter- 
nodes long ; tendrils intermittent, occasionally continuous, long, 
bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves large, irregularly round ; upper surface 
pale green, dull, rugose ; lower surface pale green, pubescent ; leaf 
usually not lobed with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, 
sometimes closed and overlapping ; basal sinus usually absent ; lateral 
sinus shallow or a mere notch when present. Flowers self-fertile, 
late ; stamens upright. 



422 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, short, broad, 
tapering, single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel slender with a few warts ; 
brush dull, ^\^ne-eolored. Berries small, round-oblate, black, glossy 
with heavy bloom, persistent, soft ; skin thin, free ^vith much dark red 
pigment ; flesh gi-een, translucent, juicy, tender, spicy, tart. Seeds 
free, two to six, small, brown. 

Oporto 

(Vulpina, Labrusca) 

Oporto was at one time in demand as a wine grape because 
its wine resembled in color and flavor that from Oporto. The 
variety is now scarcely known, being inferior in most of its hor- 
ticultural cliaracters to others of its species, but might be valu- 
able in breeding for some of its characters. The vine is very 
hardy, unusually free from fungal diseases, is very resistant to 
phylloxera and has been used in France as a phylloxera-resist- 
ant grafting-stock. The juice is very thick and dark, a deep 
purple, hence suitable for adding color to wine or grape-juice. 
The origin of Oporto is unknown. It was brought into culti- 
vation about 1860 by E. W. Sylvester, Lyons, New York. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, healthy, variable in productiveness. 
Canes long, reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes 
long, diaphragm thin ; tendrils continuous, bifid. Stamens reflexed. 

Fruit mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters small, cylindrical, 
often single-shouldered. Berries medium in size, round, black, glossy 
with abundant bloom, persistent, firm ; skin very thin, tender, with 
much dark wine-colored pigment ; flesh white, sometimes with purple 
tinge, juicy, fine-grained, solid, SM^eet, spicy ; fair quality. Seeds 
free, numerous, small, broad, faintly notched, sharply pointed, plump, 
dark brown. 

Othello 

(Vinifera, Vulpina, Labrusca) 

Arnold's Hybrid, Canadian Hamburg, Canadian Hybrid 

In France, Othello does remarkably well as a direct ])roducer 
and is used also for a resistant stock. While most of its 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 423 

characters are spoken of in the superhitive by tlie French, in 
America the variety is not so highly esteemed because of sus- 
ceptibility to fungi. Moreover, the fruit matures so late that 
it could ne^•er become a ^'aluable variety for the North. It is 
in no sense a table-grape but makes a well -colored, pleasant 
wine. Charles Arnold, Paris, Ontario, grew Othello from seed 
of Clinton fertilized by Black Hamburg and planted in 1859. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, brown ; nodes 
enlarged, flattened ; tendrils eontinuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid 
or trifid. Leaves of average size; upper surface light green, dull 
and smooth ; lower surface pale green, pubescent ; lobes three to five 
with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, very narrow, frequently 
closed and overlapping ; basal sinus shallow, narrow ; lateral sinus 
deep ; teeth deep, wide ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps fairly well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, 
frequently with a loose single shoulder, compact ; pedicel long, slender 
with numerous small warts ; brush short, wine-colored. Berries 
large, oval, black, glossy \\ath abundant bloom, very persistent ; skin 
thin, tough, adherent with red pigment ; flesh dark green, verj' juicy, 
fine-grained, tough, sprightly ; low in quality. Seeds free, one to three, 
neck sometimes swollen, brown. 



Ozark 

(.^stivalis, Labrusca) 

Ozark belongs to the South and to IMissouri in particular. 
Its merits and demerits have been threshed out by the INIis- 
souri grape-growers with the result that its culture is some- 
what increasing. It is a grape of low quality, partly, perhaps, 
from overbearing, which it habitually does unless the fruit is 
thinned. The vine is healthy and a very strong grower, but 
is self-sterile, which is against it as a market sort. In spite of 
self-sterility and low quality, Ozark is a promising variety for 
the country south of Pennsylvania. Ozark originated with 
J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas, from seed of unknown 
source. The variety was introduced about 1890. 



424 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick with 
thin bloom, surface roughened ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes 
long; tendi'ils intermittent, usually bifid. Leaves dense, large; 
upper surface light green ; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent, 
cobwebby ; lobes three to five ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; serra- 
tions shallow, narrow. Flowers self -sterile or nearly so, open late ; 
stamens reflexed. 

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, usually with a long, 
loose shoulder, very compact ; pedicel short, thick, smooth ; brush 
long, red. Berries variable in size, dull black with abundant bloom, 
persistent ; skin tough with much wine-colored pigment ; flesh tender, 
mild ; fair in quality. Seeds free, small. 

Palomino 

(Vinifera) 

Golden Chasselas. Listan 

This variety seems to be grown in California under the three 
names given — while in France Palomino is described as a 
bluish-black grape. Palomino seems to be grown commonly 
in California as a table-grape and is worth trying in eastern 
America. The variety received under the name Palomino 
from California at the New York Experiment Station has the 
following characters, agreeing closely with those set down by 
Californian viticulturists : 

Fruit ripens about the 20th of October, keeping qualities good ; 
clusters medium to large, long, single-shouldered, tapering, loose; 
berries medium to small, roundish, pale greenish-yellow, thin bloom ; 
skin and the adhering flesh medium tender and crisp, flesh surrounding 
seeds melting ; flavor sweet, vinous ; quality good. 

Peabody 

(Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Peabody is as yet a comparatively unimportant offspring of 
Clinton. The grapes are of excellent quality. It appears to 
do better in the northern tier of states or in Canada, than 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 425 

farther south. This variety was grown by J. II. Ricketts 
about 1870. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, 
light brown with ash-gray tinge, darker at nodes, covered with thin 
bloom ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils inter- 
mittent, bifid or triftd. Leaves medium in size; upper surface dark 
green, thin ; lower surface pale green, nearly glabrous ; lobes three, 
acuminate ; petiolar sinus shallow, wide ; serration deep, narrow. 
Flowers semi-fertiJe, mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, usually with a shoulder 
connected to the l)unch by a long stem, compact ; pedicel short, slender, 
warty ; brush short, green. Berries oval, black, glossy, covered with 
thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough; flesh very juicy, tender, 
vinous, spicy, agreeably sweet at the skin, tart at the center ; good. 
Seeds free, broad. 

Perfection 

(Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera) 

Perfection is a seedling of Delaware, which it greatly re- 
sembles but does not equal in fruit ; its fruits being hardly as 
high in quality, do not keep as well, shrivel more before ripen- 
ing, and shell more readily. In its vine characters, it is much 
more like a Labrusca than Delaware, suggesting that it is a 
Delaware cross. In the Southwest, Perfection is considered a 
valuable early red grape. J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas, 
grew Perfection from seed of Delaware; it was sent out for 
testing about 1890. 

Vine vigorous, healthy, injured in severe winters, productive. 
Canes of medium length and number, slender ; nodes enlarged, flat- 
tened ; internodes short ; tendrils intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves 
healthy, medium in size ; upper surface light green ; lower surface 
grayish-white with a tinge of bronze, heavily pubescent ; lobes wanting 
or thi-ee to five ; petiolar sinus shallow, wide ; sei'ration shallow. 
Flowers seU'-fertile or nearly so, open in mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early. Clusters usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel 
short, slender, smooth ; brush short, yellow. Berries small, round, red 
but less brilliant than Delaware with faint bloom, inclined to drop 
from pedicel, soft ; skin thin, free from astringency ; flesh medium in 



426 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

juiciness and tenderness, vinous, mild, sweet ; good in quality. Seeds 
adherent, numerous, small, often with an enlarged neck. 

Perkins 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

At one time Perkins was grown largely as an early grape but 
has been discarded very generally on account of the poor qual- 
ity of the fruit. The pulp of the grape is hard and the flavor 
is that of Wyoming and Northern Muscadine, grapes char- 
acterized by disagreeable foxiness. As with nearly all Labrus- 
cas, Perkins is a poor keeper. Notwithstanding the faults of 
its fruit, the variety may have value in regions where grape- 
growing is precarious ; for in fruiting it is one of the most re- 
liable grapes cultivated, the vines being hardy, vigorous, pro- 
ductive and free from fungal diseases. Perkins is an accidental 
seedling found about 1830 in the garden of Jacob Perkins, 
Bridgewater, Massachusetts. 

Vine vigoroxis, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, 
thick, dark brown, deepening in color at the nodes, surface heavily 
pubescent ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes long ; tendrils con- 
tinuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size, thick; upper surface 
rugose ; lower surface heavily pubescent ; veins distinct ; lobes three ; 
petiolar sinus deep, narrow ; serration shallow. Flowers self-fertile, 
early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, ships well. Clusters of medium size and length, broad, 
cylindrical, often with a single shoulder, compact ; pedicel short, 
thick, warty ; brush long, yellow. Berries large, oval, pale Ulac or 
light red with thin bloom, inclined to drop from the pedicel, soft ; 
skin thin, tough, wathout pigment; flesh white, juicy, stringy, fine- 
grained, firm, meaty, very foxy ; poor in quality. Seeds adherent, 
numerous, medium in size, notched. 

POCKLINGTON 

(Labrusca) 

Before the advent of Niagara, Pocklington (Plate XXII) was 
the leading green grape. The \ariety has the fatal fault, how- 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 427 

ever, of ripening its crop late, which with some minor defects 
has caused it to fall below Niagara for northern grape districts. 
Pocklington is a seedling of Concord and resembles its parent 
in vine characters ; the vines are fully equal to or surpass those 
of Concord in hardiness, but are of slower growth and not 
quite as healthy, vigorous nor productive. In quality, the 
grapes are as good if not better than those of Concord or Ni- 
agara, being sweet, rich and pleasantly flavored, although as 
with the other grapes named, it has too much foxiness for criti- 
cal consumers. Pocklington is not equal to several other grapes 
of its season in quality, as lona, Jefferson, Diana, Dutchess 
and Catawba, but it is far above the average and for this reason 
should be retained. John Pocklington, Sandy Hill, New York, 
grew Pocklington from seed of Concord about 1870. 

Vine medium in vigor, hardy. Canes of medium length, number and 
size, dark reddish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils contin- 
uous, bifld or trifid. Leaves variable in size, think ; upper surface 
light green, glossy ; lower surface tinged with bronze, pubescent ; lobes 
one to three with terminus acuminate ; petiolar sinus deep, wide ; 
teeth narrow. Flowers self-fertile, mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylin- 
drical, often single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, thick with 
a few small warts ; brush short, green. Berries large, oblate, yellowish- 
green with tinge of amber, wth thin bloom, firm ; skin with scattering 
russet dots, thin, tender, adherent, faintly astringent ; flesh light 
gi-een with yellow tinge, translucent, juicy, to\xgh, fine-grained, slightly 
foxy ; good. Seeds adherent, one to six, of medium length and breadth. 

POUGHKEEPSIE 

(Bourquiniana, Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Poughkeepsie has been known long on the Hudson River, 
yet it is now little grown there and has not been disseminated 
widely elsewhere. In quality of fruit, it is equal to tlie best 
American varieties, but the vine characters are all poor and 
the variety is thus effectually debarred from common cultiva- 
tion. Both vine and fruit resemble those of Delaware, but in 



428 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

neither does it quite equal the latter. In particular, the vine 
is more easily winter-killed and is less productive than that of 
Delaware. The grapes ripen a little earlier than those of the 
last named sort and this, with their beauty and fine quality, 
is sufficient to recommend it for the garden at least. About 
1865, A. J. Caywood, JNIarlboro, New York, grew Pough- 
keepsie from seed of lona fertilized by mixed pollen of Delaware 
and Walter. 

Vine of medium vigor. Canes short, thick, dark reddish-brown ; 
tendrils intermittent, frequently three in line, bifid or trifid. Leaves 
small ; upper surface green, glossy, older leaves rugose ; lower surface 
grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters small, tapering, usually 
single-shouldered, very compact. Berries small, round, pale red with 
thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tender, without pigment; 
flesh pale green, very juicy, tender, melting, fine-grained, vinous, sweet ; 
very good to best. Seeds free, small, broad, with enlarged neck, brown. 

Prentiss 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Prentiss is a green grape of high quality, once well known 
and generally recommended, but now going out of cultivation 
because the vine is tender to cold, lacks in vigor, is unpro- 
ductive, uncertain in bearing and is subject to rot and mildew. 
There are vineyards in which it does very well and in such it 
is a remarkably attractive green grape, especially in form of 
cluster and in color of berry, in these respects resembling the 
one-time favorite, Rebecca, although not so high in quality 
as that variety. Its season is given as both before and after 
Concord. Prentiss always must remain a variety for the 
amateur and for special localities. Tt originated with J. W. 
Prentiss, Pulteney, New York, about 1870 from seed of Isabella. 

Vine weak. Canes thick, light to dark brown ; tendrils continuous, 
bifid. Leaves small, thick ; upper surface light green, rugose in the 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 429 

older leaves ; lower surface pale green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, 
mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit variable in season, altout with Concord, keeps well. Cluster 
medium in size, tapering, sometimes with a single shoulder, compact. 
Berries medium in size, oval, light gi'een with a yellow tinge, thin 
bloom, persistent, firm ; skin tough, without pigment ; flesh pale 
green, juicy, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, numerous, notched, short, 
sharp-pointed, dark brown. 

Purple Cornichon 

(Vinifera) 

Black Cornichon 

By virtue of attractive appearance and excellent shipping 
qualities of the fruit, this variety takes high place among the 
commercial grapes of California. Late ripening is another 
quality making it desirable, while its curious, long, curved 
berries add novelty to its attractions. The fruit does not take 
high rank in quality. The description has been compiled. 

Vine very vigorous, healthy and productive ; wood light brown 
striped with darker brown, short-jointed. Leaves large, longer than 
wide, deeply five-lobed ; dark green above, lighter and very hairy 
below ; coarsely toothed ; with short, thick petiole. Bunches very 
large, loose or sometimes scraggly, borne on long peduncles ; berries 
large, long, more or less curved, dark purple, spotted, thick-skinned, 
borne on long pedicels ; flesh firm, crisp, sweet but not rich in flavor ; 
quality good but not high. Season late, keeps and ships well. 

Rebecca 

(Labrusea, Vinifera) 

In the middle of the last century, when grape-growing was in 
the hands of the connoisseurs, Rebecca was one of the sterling 
green varieties. It is wholly unsuited for commercial vine- 
yards and for years has been disappearing gradually from 
cultivation. The fruit is exceptionally fine, consisting of well- 
formed bunches and berries, the latter handsome yellowish- 



430 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

white and semi-transparent. In quality, the grapes are of the 
best, with a rich, sweet flavor and pleasing aroma. But the 
vine characters condemn Rebecca for any but the amateur. 
The vines lack in hardiness and vigor, are susceptible to mildew 
and other fungi and are productive only under the best con- 
ditions. The original vine was an accidental seedling found 
in the garden of E. ]\I. Peake, Hudson, New York, and bore its 
first fruit in 1852. 

Vine weak, sometimes vigorous, doubtfully hardy. Canes long, 
numerous, slender, dull brown, deepenuig in color at the nodes ; tendrils 
continuous or intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size ; 
upper surface dark green, dull, rugose ; lower surface grayish-green, 
pubescent. Flowers self-fertile ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters small, short, 
cylindrical, rarely Avith a small, single shoulder, compact. Berries 
of medium size, oval, green with yellow tinge verging on amber, thin 
gray bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thin, without pigment ; flesh pale 
green, very juicy, tender, melting, vinous, a little foxy, sweet ; good 
to very good. Seeds free, short, narrow, blunt, brown. 

Red Eagle 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Red Eagle is a pure-bred seedling of Black Eagle which it 
resembles in all characters except color of fruit. Vine and 
fruit exhibit the characters found in Rogers' hybrids. It takes 
high rank as a grape of quality and can be recommended for 
the garden. The variety originated with T. V. Munson, Deni- 
son, Texas, and was sent out in 1888. 

Vine medium in vigor and hardiness, productive. Canes few, slen- 
der, dark brown wath heavy bloom ; nodes prominent, flattened ; 
tendrils continuous or intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves thick ; upper 
surface light green, dull, rugose ; lower surface grayish-green, pubes- 
cent ; lobes three to five with terminus obtuse ; petiolar sinus deep, 
narrow, sometimes closed and overlappuig ; basal sinus wide ; lateral 
sinus deep, wide ; teeth deep, wde. Flowers semi-fertile, late ; 
stamens upright. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 431 

Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, taper- 
ing, single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, loose with many 
abortive berries ; pedicel very long, slender ; brush green with brown 
tinge. Berries variable in size, round, light to very dark red with 
heavy bloom, persistent, soft ; skin thick, tender, adherent with some 
red pigment ; flesh green, transparent, juicy, very tender, melting, 
slightly foxy, tart ; very good. Seeds free, one to five, large, long, 
blunt, light brown. 

Regal 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

Regal is an ofTspring of Lindley, which it greatly resembles. 
The fruit is attractive in appearance and high in quality. A 
seemingly insignificant fault might make Regal undesirable in 
a commercial ^'^neyard ; the clusters are borne so close to the 
wood that it is difficult to harvest the fruit and avoid injury to 
the berries next to the wood. The variety is worthy of ex- 
tensive culture in vineyards and gardens. Regal originated 
with W. A. Woodward, Rockford, Rlinois, in 1879. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, very productive. Canes interme- 
diate in length and size, numerous, dark reddish-brown. Tendrils 
intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large ; upper surface green, 
glossy and rugose ; lower surface pale green with a bronze tinge, 
strongly pubescent. Flowers self -fertile, mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, cylindrical, 
usually with a short single shoulder, sometimes double-shouldered, very 
compact. Berries large, round, purplish-red with faint bloom, per- 
sistent. Skin thin, tough, wthout pigment. Flesh pale green, very 
juicy, fine-grained, tender, musky ; good. Seeds free, numerous, long, 
narrow, notched, blunt with a short neck, brown. 



Requa 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

This is one of Rogers' hybrids which equals other grapes of 
its color and season. The grapes are attractive in cluster and 
berry and are of very good quality but are subject to rot and 



432 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

ripen too late for northern regions. The variety was named 
Requa in 1869, it having been previously known as No. 28. 

Vine vigorous, hardy except in severe winters, medium in produc- 
tiveness. Canes long, thick ; tendrils continuous or intermittent, 
trifid or bifid. Leaves mediiim in size, dark green, often thick and 
rugose ; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers semi-fertile, 
late ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit late, keeps long. Clusters large, cylindrical, often with 
a long, single shoulder, compact. Berries large, oval, dark, dull red 
covered with thin bloom, strongly adherent ; skin thin, tough, ad- 
herent ; flesh pale green, tender, stringy, vinous, foxy, sweet ; good 
to very good. Seeds adherent, medium in size and length, broad, blunt. 



Rochester 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

The fruit of Rochester is a large-clustered red grape, handsome 
and very good in quality. The vine is a strong grower, pro- 
ductive and free from diseases. The variety is difficult to 
propagate and, therefore, not in favor with nurserymen. The 
grapes are sweet, rich and vinous but should be used as soon as 
ripi% as they do not keep well and the berries quickly shatter 
from the bunch. As an attractive early red grape, Rochester 
is worth a place in the garden and in favored locations for a 
special market. Ellwanger and Barry, Rochester, New York, 
in 1867 grew Rochester from mixed seed of Delaware, Diana, 
Concord and Rebecca. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, dark reddish-brown ; 
nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils intermittent, 
long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large ; upper surface light green, glossy, 
smooth ; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent ; lobes one to three 
with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep ; basal sinus absent ; lateral 
sinus shallow ; teeth shallow. Flowers fertile, mid-season ; stamens 
upright. 

Fruit does not keep well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, usually 
single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, slender with few warts ; 
brush slender, yeUo wish-brown, Berries medium, oval, purpUsh-red, 




Plate XXXII. — Wyoming (x: 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 433 

dull with thin, lilac bloom, drop from the pedicel, soft ; skin thick, 
tough, inclined to crack, free, without pigment, astringent ; flesh pale 
green, transparent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous, sweet ; good 
to very good. Seeds free, one to three, large, short, broad, dark brown. 

Rommel 

(Labrusca, Vulpina, Vinifera) 

Rommel is rarely cultivated in the North, because the vines 
lack in robustness, hardiness and productiveness and are sus- 
ceptible to the leaf-hopper ; and the grapes do not attain high 
quality and crack as they ripen. The bunch and berry are 
attractive in form, size and color. At its best, Rommel is a 
good table-grape and makes a fine white wine. It is worth 
growing in the South. T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, origi- 
nated Rommel in 1885, from seed of Elvira pollinated by Tri- 
umph, and introduced it in 1889. 

Vine vigorous in the South. Canes long, numerous, thick, reddish- 
brown, surface roughened ; nodes enlarged, often flattened ; internodes 
short ; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in 
size, round, thick ; upper surface light green, dull, rugose ; lower sur- 
face pale gi-eeu, free from pubescence but slightly hairy ; leaf not 
lobed, terminus acute to acuminate ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often 
closed and overlapping ; basal sinus lacking ; lateral sinus shallow when 
present ; teeth deep. Flowers semi-fertile, late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit mid-season, sliips and keeps well. Clusters medium to short, 
broad, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel slender, smooth ; 
brush short, pale green. Berries large, roundish, light green with a 
yellow tinge, glossy, persistent, firm ; skin thin, cracks badly, tender, 
adherent, without pigment or astringency ; flesh greenish, translucent, 
juicy, tender, melting, stringy, sweet ; fair to good. Seeds free, one to 
four, broad, sharp-pointed, plump, brown. 

• 
ROSAKI 

(Vinifera) 

Rosaki is a table- and raisin-grape of southeastern Europe and 
Asia Minor. According to some of the California nursery 
2f 



434 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

companies, it is grown in that state under the name Dattier de 
Beyrouth, although it would seem from French descriptions 
that there is a separate, very late variety of the latter name. 
Rosaki is similar to jNIalaga and there is a possibility that in 
some of the warmer parts of the East, it may be grown commer- 
cially as a substitute for the latter. The variety seems to be 
little grown on the Pacific slope. 

Vines vigorous, usually very productive. Leaves large, roundish, 
rugose, usually five-lobed ; terminal lobe acuminate ; petiolar sinus 
moderately deep to deep, medium broad ; lower lateral sinus shallow, 
broad, occasionally lacking ; upper lateral sinus shallow to medium, 
broad ; margins broadly and bluntly dentate. Fruit ripens the third 
week in October, keeping qualities excellent ; clusters large, loose, 
tapering, shouldered ; berries large to very large, oval to long-oval, 
pale yellow-green ; flesh translucent, tender, meaty, vinous, sprightly ; 
quality good to very good. 



Rose of Peru 

(Vinifera) 

Rose of Peru is a favorite table-grape in California, confused 
with and possibly the same as Black Prince. Its chief com- 
mendable characters are handsome appearance and high quality 
of fruit and very productive vines. It is not adapted for 
shipping and does not enter plentifully into commerce. Its 
season is so late that the variety is hardly worth trying 
in the East, and yet it has matured in favorable seasons 
at Geneva, New York. The following description is com- 
piled : 

Vine vigorous, healthy, productive ; wood short-jointed, dark 
brown. Leaves of medium size ; deep green above, lighter green 
and tomentose below. Bunches very large, shouldered, very loose, 
often scraggly ; berry large, round, black wth firm, crackling flesh ; 
skin rather thin and tender ; flavor sweet and rich ; quality very good 
.to best. Season late, keeping rather well but not shipping well. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 435 

Salem 

(Labrusca, Vinifcra) 

Rogers' No. 22, Rogers' No. 53 

Salem (Plate XXVII) is the one of Rogers' hybrids of which 
the originator is said to have thought most, and to which he 
gave the name of his place of residence. The two chief faults, 
unproductiveness and susceptibility to mildew, are not found 
in all localities, and in these districts, near good markets, Salem 
ought to rank high as a commercial fruit. The vine is hardy, 
vigorous and productive and bears handsome fruit of high 
quality. This variety was christened Salem by Rogers in 
1867, two years earlier than his other hybrids were named. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes long, 
dark brown ; nodes enlarged ; tendrils continuous or intermittent, long, 
bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size ; upper surface dark green, 
dull ; lower surface pale green with slight bronze tinge, pubescent ; 
lobes one to tliree with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, 
often overlapping ; basal sinus lacking ; lateral sinus shallow, narrow, 
notched. Flowers sterile, mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, short, broad, 
tapering, heavily shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, thick with small 
warts, enlarged at point of attachment to berry ; brush short, pale 
green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull, persistent, soft ; sldn 
thick, adherent, without pigment, astringent ; flesh translucent, juicy, 
tender, stringy, fine-gi'ained, vinous, sprightly ; good to very good. 
Seeds one to six, large, long and broad, blunt, brown. 

SCUPPERNONG 

(Rotundifolia) 

American Muscadine, Bull, Bullace, Bullet, Fox Grape, Green 
Scwppernong, Green Muscadine , Hickman, Muscadine, Roanoke 

Scuppernong is preeminently the grape of the South, the 
chief representative of the great species, V. rotundifolia, which 



436 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

runs riot in natural luxuriance from Delaware and Maryland to 
the Gulf and westward from the Atlantic to Arkansas and Texas. 
Scuppernong vines are found on arbors, in gardens, or half wild, 
on trees and fences on nearly every farm in the South Atlantic 
states. As a rule, these vines receive little culti\ation, are 
unpruned and are given no care of any kind ; but even under 
neglect they produce large crops. The vines are almost immune 
to mildew, rot, phylloxera, or other fungal or insect pests ; they 
give not only an abundance of fruit but on arbors and trellises 
are much prized for their shade and beaut3\ The fruit, to a 
palate accustomed to other grapes, is not very acceptable, 
having a musky flavor and a somewhat repugnant odor, which, 
however, with familiarity becomes quite agreeable. The pulp 
is sweet and juicy but is lacking in sprightliness. The grapes 
are not suitable for the market since the berries drop from the 
bunch in ripening and become more or less smeared with juice 
so that their appearance is not appetizing. 

Vine vigorous, not hardy in the North, very productive. Canes 
long, numerous, slender, ash-gray to gi-ayish-brown ; surface smooth, 
thickly covered with small, light brown dots ; tendrils intermittent, 
simple. Leaves small, thin ; upper surface light green, smooth ; lower 
surface very pale green, pubescent along the ribs ; veins inconspicuous. 
Flowers very late ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit late, ripens unevenly, berries drop as they mature. Clusters 
small, round, unshouldered, loose. Berries few in a cluster, large, 
round, dull green, often with brown tinge, firm ; skin thiek, tough 
mth many small russet dots ; flesh pale green, juicy, tender, soft, 
fine-grained, foxy, sweet to agreeably tart; fair to good. Seeds ad- 
herent, large, short, broad, unnotched, blunt, plump, surface smooth, 
brown. 

Secretary 

(Vinifera, Vulpina, Labrusca) 

Injured by mildew and rot which attack leaves, fruit and 
young wood, the vines of Secretary are able to produce good 
grapes only in exceptional seasons and in favored localities. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 437 

The fruit characters of Secretary, however, give the grapes 
exceptionally high quality, the berries being meaty yet juicy, 
fine-grained and tender, with a sweet, spicy, vinous flavor. 
The bunches are large, well-formed, with medium-sized, pur- 
plish-black berries covered with thick bloom, making a very 
handsome cluster. While the vine and foliage somewhat 
resemble those of Clinton, one of its parents, the variety is not 
nearly as hardy, vigorous nor productive. Moreover, in any 
but favored localities in the North, its maturity is somewhat 
uncertain. These defects keep Secretary from becoming of 
commercial importance and make it of value only to the 
amateur. Secretary is one of the first productions of J. H. 
Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, the original vine coming from 
seed of Clinton fertilized by Muscat Hamburg, planted in 1867. 

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, variable in productiveness. 
Canes numerous, light brown, conspicuously darker at nodes, surface 
covered with thin, blue bloom ; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves 
small to medium, thin ; upper surface light green, dull, smooth ; lower 
surface pale green, glabrous. Flowers semi-fertile, early ; stamens 
upright. 

Fruit ripens after Concord, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, 
long, cylindrical with a large, single shoulder, often loose and with many 
abortive fruits. Berries large, round, flattened at attachment to 
pedicel, dark purplish-black, glossy, persistent, firm ; skin tough with 
wine-colored pigment ; flesh gi-een, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous, 
sweet ; good. Seeds free, large, broad, notched, long, dark brown. 

Senasqua 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

The vine of Senasqua lacks in vigor, hardiness, productiveness 
and health. The grapes are of good quality, and when well 
grown are up to the average fruits of the Labrusca-Vinifera 
hybrids. Unfortimately the berries have a tendency to crack 
which is aggravated by the bunches being so compact as to 
crowd the berries. Senasqua is one of the latest grapes to open 
its buds and is, therefore, seldom injured by late frosts. It 



438 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

can be recommended only for the garden for the sake of variety. 
Stephen W. Underhill of Crown Point, New York, originated 
Senasqua from seed of Concord pollinated by Black Prince. 

Vine weak and tender, often unproductive. Canes short, few, red- 
dish-brown ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils intermittent, long, 
trifid or bifid. Leaves light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface 
whitish-green, pubescent ; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute ; 
petiolar sinus narrow ; basal and lateral sinuses shallow and narrow 
when present. Flowers fertile, late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit a little later than Concord, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, 
irregularly tapering, usually with a small, single shoulder, very com- 
pact ; pedicel thick, smooth, enlarged at point of attachment ; brush 
short, reddish. Berries large, roimd, reddish-black, persistent, firm ; 
skin thick, tender, cracks, adherent, contains some wine-colored pig- 
ment ; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, meaty, vinous, spicy ; 
good. Seeds free, one to five, long, narrow, one-sided, Hght brown. 

Sultana 

(Vinifera) 

This variety was formerly the standard seedless grape in 
California for home use and raisins, but it is now outstripped by 
Sultanina. Sultana is possibly better flavored than Sultanina 
but the vines are hardly as vigorous or productive and the 
berries often have seeds. The description is compiled. 

Vines vigorous, upright, productive. Leaves large, five-lobed, 
with large sinuses, light in color, coarsely toothed. Bunches large, 
long, cylindrical, heavilj' shouldered, sometimes not well filled, 
often loose and scraggly ; berries small, round, firm and crisp, golden- 
yellow, sweet with considerable piquancy ; quality good. 

Sultanina 

(Vinifera) 

Thompson s Seedless 

Sultanina is one of the standard seedless grapes of the Pacific 
slope, grown both to eat out of hand and for raisins. Probably 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 439 

it can be grown in home plantations in favored parts of eastern 
America where the season is long and warm. The following 
description is compiled from Californian viticulturists : 

Vine very vigorous, very productive ; trunk large witli very long 
canes. Leaves glabrous on both sides, dark yellow-green above, 
light below ; generally three-lobed, wth shallow sinuses ; teeth short 
and obtuse. Bunch large, conico-eylindrical, well filled, with her- 
baceous peduncles ; berries oval, beautiful golden-yellow color ; 
skin moderately thick ; flesh of rather neuti'al flavor ; very good. 

Taylor 

(Vulpina, Labrusca) 
Bnllitt 

While it is from the species to which Taylor belongs that we 
must look for our hardiest vines, nevertheless this grape and its 
offspring, although not tender to cold, do best in southern 
regions, as they require a long warm summer to mature prop- 
erly. The quality of the fruit of Taylor is fair to good, the 
flavor being sweet, pure, delicate and spicy and the flesh tender 
and juicy; but the bunches are small and the flowers are in- 
fertile so that the berries do not set well, making very imperfect 
and unsightly clusters. The skin is such, also, that it cracks 
badly, a defect seemingly transmitted to many of the seedlings of 
the variety. The vine is strong, healthy, hardy but not very 
productive. The original vine of Taylor was a wild seedling 
found in the early part of the last century on the Cumberland 
Mountains near the Kentucky-Tennessee line by a Mr. Cobb. 

Vine vigorous to rank, healthj^ hardy, variable in productiveness. 
Leaves small, attractive in color, smooth. Flowers bloom early ; 
stamens reflexed. 

Fruit ripens about two weeks before Isabella. Clusters small 
to medium, shouldered, loose or moderately compact. Berries small 
to medium, roundish, pale greenish-white, sometimes tinged with 
amber ; skin very thin ; pulp sweet, spicy ; fair to good in quality. 



440 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Triumph 

(Labrusca, Vinifpra) 

When quality, color, shape and size of bunch and berry are 
considered, Triumph (Plate XXVIIl) is one of the finest 
dessert grapes of America. At its best, it is a magnificent bunch 
of golden grapes of highest quality, esteemed even in southern 
Europe where it must compete with the best of the Viniferas. 
In America, however, its commercial importance is curtailed by 
the fact that the fruit requires a long season for proper develop- 
ment. Triumph has, in general, the vine characters of the 
Labrusca parent, Concord, especially its habit of growth, vigor, 
productiveness and foliage characters, falling short in hardiness, 
resistance to fungal diseases and earliness of fruit, the fruit 
maturing with or a little later than Catawba. While the vine 
characters of Triumph are those of Labrusca, there is scarcely a 
suggestion of the coarseness, or of the foxy odor and taste of 
Labrusca, and the objectionable seeds, pulp and skin of the 
native grape give way- to the far less objectionable structures of 
Vinifera. The flesh is tender and melting and the flavor rich, 
sweet, vinous, pure and delicate. The skins of the berries under 
unfavorable conditions crack badly, the variety, therefore, 
neither shipping nor keeping well. Triumph was grown soon 
after the Civil War by George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, 
from seed of Concord fertilized by Chassalas Musque. 

Vine vigorous. Canes long, dark brown with much bloom ; nodes 
enlarged ; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid, sometimes bifid. Leaves 
large; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish- 
white, pubescent ; leaf usually not lobed with terminus obtuse ; petiolar 
sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping ; basal sinus absent ; 
lateral sinus shallow and nan-ow when present ; teeth deep, wide. 
Flowers self-fertile, late ; stamens upright. 

Fruit very late. Clusters very large, long, broad, cylindrical, 
sometimes single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel slender, smooth ; brush 
short, yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, oval, golden yellow, 
glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ; skin thin, inclined to crack, 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 441 

adherent, without pigment, slightly astringent ; flesh light green, 
translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous ; good to very good. 
Seeds free, one to five, small, brown. 



Ulster 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

The vines of tester set too much fruit in spite of efforts to 
control the crop by priming ; two undesirable results follow, 
the bunches are small and the vines, lacking vigor at best, fail 
to recover from the overfruitfulness. These defects keep the 
variety from becoming of importance commercially or even a 
favorite as a garden grape. The quality of the fruit is very 
good, being much like that of Catawba, and under favorable 
conditions it is an attractive green with a red tinge. The 
fruit keeps well when the variety is grown under conditions 
suited to it. Ulster originated with A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, 
New York, and was introduced by him about 1885. Its 
parents are said to be Catawba pollinated by a wild yEsti- 
valis. Both vine and fruit show traces of Labrusca and 
Vinifera, but the iEstivalis characters, if present, are not 
apparent. 

Vine hardy, productive, overbears. Canes short, slender, dark 
brown, surface roughened and covered with faint pubescence ; nodes 
enlarged and flattened ; internodes short ; tendrils intermittent, bifid, 
dehisce early. I^eaves small, thick; upper surface light green, glossy, 
smooth ; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent ; leaf usually not lobed 
with terminus acute; petiolar sinus medium to wide; basal sinus 
absent ; lateral sinus a notch when present ; teeth shallow, wide. 
Flowers self-fertile, early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late mid-season. Clusters long, eyhndrical, often single-' 
shouldered, compact ; pedicel slender, with numerous warts ; brush 
short, yellomsh-green. Berries medium in size, round, dark dull red 
with thin bloom, persistent ; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent ; 
flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, faintly aro- 
matic, slightly foxy; good to very good. Seeds free, one to six, 
medium in size, plump, brown. 



442 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Verdal 

(Vinifera) 
Aspiran Blanc 

Verdal is one of the standard late grapes of the Pacific slope, 
ripening among the last. The grapes are seen seldom in distant 
markets and the quality is not quite good enough to make it 
a very great favorite for home plantations. Vigor and hardiness 
of vines commend it as do the large and handsome fruits, and 
these qualities, with late ripening, will probably long keep it on 
grape lists in the far West. The description is compiled. 

Vines vigorous, hardy, healthy and productive ; canes rather 
slender, half erect. Leaves of medium size, glabrous on both surfaces, 
except below near the axis of the main nerve ; sinuses well marked and 
generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance of having five holes ; 
teeth long, unequal, acuminate. Bunches large to very large, irregu- 
lar, long-conical, usually compact ; shoulders small or lacking ; berries 
large or very large, yellowish-green ; skin thick but tender ; flesh crisp, 
firm ; flavor agreeable but not rich ; quality good. Season very late, 
keeping and shipping well. 

Vergennes 

(Labrusea) 

The most valuable attribute of Vergennes (Plate XXIX) is 
certainty in bearing. The vine seldom fails to bear although it 
often overbears, causing variability in size of fruits and time of 
ripening. With a moderate crop, the grapes ripen with Con- 
cord, but with a heavy load from one to two weeks later. 
Vergennes is somewhat unpopular with vineyard ists because 
of the sprawling habit of the vines which makes them untract- 
able for ^'ineyar(l operations ; this fault is obviated by grafting 
on other \'ines. The grapes are attractive, the quality is good, 
flavor agreeable, the flesh tender, and see(is and skin are not 
objectionable. Vergennes is the standard late-keeping grape 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 443 

for northern regions, being very common in the markets as 
late as January. The original vine was a chance seedling in 
the garden of William E. Greene, Vergennes, Vermont, in 1874. 

Vine variable in vigor, doubtfully hardy, productive, healthy. 
Canes long, dark brown ; nodes enlarged, strongly flattened ; tendrils 
continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thin ; upper surface 
light green, glossy, rugose ; lower surface pale green, very pubescent ; 
leaf usually not lobed with terminus broadly acute ; petiolar sinus wide ; 
teeth shallow. Flowers semi-sterile, mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters of medium size, broad, 
cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, loose ; pedicel with numerous 
small warts ; brush slender, short, pale green. Berries large, oval, 
light and dark red with thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough, 
adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, juicy, fine-grained, somewhat 
stringy, tender, vinous ; good to very good. Seeds free, one to five, 
blunt, brown. 

Walter 

(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana) 

Were it not almost impossible to grow healthy vines of Walter, 
the variety would rank high among American grapes. But 
stunted by fungi which attack leaves, young wood and fruit, it 
is possible only in exceptionally favorable seasons satisfactorily 
to produce crops of this variety. Besides susceptibility to 
diseases, the vines are fastidious to soils, everywhere variable in 
growth and are injured in cold winters. As if to atone for the 
faults of the vine, the fruit of Walter is almost perfect, lacking 
only in size of bunch and berry. The bunch and berry resemble 
those of Delaware, but the fruit is not as high in quality as that 
of its parents. Walter is adapted to conditions under which 
Delaware thrives. A. J. Caywood, INIodena, New York, grew 
this variety about 1850 from seed of Delaware pollinated by 
Diana. 

Vine vigorous. Canes medium in length and size, dark reddish- 
brown with thin bloom ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils intermit- 
tent, bifid. Leaves thick ; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth ; 



444 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent ; lobes one to three 
with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus narrow ; basal sinus lacking ; lat- 
eral sinus a notch if present. Flowers mid-season ; stamens upright. 
Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters medium in size, broad, 
cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel slender, 
with small, scattering warts ; brush short, slender, green with brown 
tinge. Berries small, ovate, red, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, 
firm ; skin very tough, adheres slightlj', unpigmented ; flesh pale 
green, translucent, juicy, tough, somewhat foxy, vinous, aromatic ; 
good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, sharp-pointed, 
light brown. 

Wilder 

(Labrusca, Vinifera) 

The fruit of Wilder is surpassed in quality and appearance 
by other of Rogers' hybrids, but the vine is the most reliable of 
any of these hybrid sorts, being vigorous, hardy, productive, 
and, although somewhat susceptible to mildew, as healthy as 
any. Wilder is not as well known in the markets as it should 
be, and now that fungal diseases can be controlled by spraying 
should be more commonly planted in commercial vineyards, 
especially for local markets. Wilder is one of the f^rty-five 
Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids raised by E. S. Rogers, Salem, Mas- 
sachusetts, having been described first in 1858. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, susceptible to mildew. Canes 
long, numerous, reddish-brown, darker at the nodes ; internodes long ; 
tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, irregidarly round ; 
upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth ; lower surface pale green, 
pubescent ; usually not lobed with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus 
deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping ; basal sinus lacking ; 
lateral sinus shallow, narrow, or a mere notch when present. Flowers 
self-sterile, mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters variable 
in size, short, broad, tapering, heavily single-shouldered, loose; pedicel 
long, thick with nimierous warts ; brush thick, green with tinge of red. 
Berries large, oval, purplish-black with heavy bloom, persistent, fu"m ; 
skin thick, adherent to pulp, with bright red pigment, astringent; 
flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender ; good. Seeds adherent, one to 
five, long, light brown. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 445 

WiNCHELL 

(Labrusca, Vinifera, iEstivalis) 

Green Mountain 

The vines of Winchell (Plate XXX) are vigorous, hardy, 
healthy, productive, and the fruit is early, of high quality and 
ships well — altogether a most admirable early grape. There 
are some minor faults which become drawbacks in the culture of 
Winchell. The berries, and under some conditions the bunches, 
are small and the bunch is loose with a large shoulder. Some- 
times this looseness becomes so pronounced as to give a strag- 
gling, poorly-formed cluster ; and the shoulder, when as large as 
the cluster itself, which often happens, makes the cluster un- 
sightly. The grapes shell when fully ripe, a serious fault. 
Again, while the crop usually ripens evenly, there are seasons 
when two pickings are needed because of the unevenness in 
ripening. Lastly, the skin is thin and there is danger in un- 
favorable seasons of the berries cracking, although this is seldom 
a serious fault. These defects do not offset the several good 
characters of Winchell which make it the standard early 
green grape, deserving to rank with the best early grapes of 
any color. The original vine was raised by James Milton 
Clough, Stamford, Vermont, about 1850 from seed of an un- 
known purple grape. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, very productive. Canes long, nu- 
merous, slender, dark brown with thin bloom ; nodes enlarged, flat- 
tened; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid. Leaves 
large ; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth ; lower surface dull 
green, tinged with bronze, faintly pubescent ; lobes three to five with 
terminal lobe acute ; petiolar sinus deep ; basal sinus shallow ; teeth 
shallow, -wide. Flowers fertile, mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters long, slender, cylindri- 
cal, often with a long shoulder, compact ; pedicel short, slender with 
few inconspicuous warts ; brush greenish-white. Berries small, 
round, light green, persistent, soft ; skin marked with small, reddish- 



44G MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

brown spots, thin, tender, slightly astringent ; flesh green, translucent, 
juicy, tender, fine-grained, sweet ; very good to best. Seeds free, one 
to four, small, plump, wide and long, blunt, brown. 



Woodruff 

(Labrusea, Vinifera?) 

Woodruff is a handsome, showy, brick-red grape with large 
clusters and berries, but its taste belies its looks, for the flesh 
is coarse and the flavor poor. The variety would not be worth 
attention were it not for its excellent vine characters; the 
vines are hardy, productive and healthy. The grapes ripen a 
little before Concord and come on the market at a favorable 
time, especially for a red grape. Woodruff originated from C. 
H. Woodruff', iVnn Arbor, Michigan, as a chance seedling which 
came up in 1874 and fruited first in 1877. 

Vine very vigorous, hardy. Canes dark brown ; nodes enlarged, 
flattened ; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves round ; upper 
surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface greenish-white, pubes- 
cent ; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute ; petiolar sinus wide ; 
basal sinus lacking ; lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present ; 
teeth shallow. Flowers semi-fertile, early ; stamens upright. 

Fruit ripening before Concord. Clusters broad, widely tapering, 
usually single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel short, thick, smooth ; 
brush long, pale green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull, firm ; 
skin thin, tender, adherent, slightly astringent ; flesh pale green, trans- 
lucent, juicy, tough, coarse, very foxy ; fair in quality. Seeds ad- 
herent, one to five, broad, short, plump, blunt, brown. 

WORDEN 

(Labrusea) 

Of the many offspring of Concord, Worden (Plate XXXI) is 
best known and most meritorious. The grapes differ chiefly 
from those of Concord in having larger berries and bunches, in 
having better quality and in being a week to ten days earlier. 



VARIETIES OF GRAPES 447 

The vine is equally hardy, healthy, vigorous anrl productive but 
is more fastidious in its adaptations to soil, although now and 
then it does even better. The chief fault of the variety is that 
the fruit cracks badly, often preventing the profitable marketing 
of a crop. Besides this tenderness of skin, the fruit-pulp of 
Worden is softer than that of Concord, there is more juice, and 
the keeping qualities are not as good, so that the grapes hardly 
ship as well as those of the more commonly grown grape. 
Worden is very popular in northern grape regions both for com- 
mercial plantations and the garden. It is a more desirable 
inhabitant of the garden, because of higher quality of fruit than 
Concord, and under conditions well suited to it is better as a 
commercial variety, as the fruit is handsomer as well as of 
better quality. In the markets the fruit ought to sell for a 
higher price than Concord if desired for immediate consumption, 
and if it can be har\'ested promptly, as it does not hang well on 
the vines. Its earlier season is against it for a commercial 
variety and, with the defects mentioned, will prevent its taking 
the place of Concord to a great degree. Worden was originated 
by Schuyler Worden, INIinetto, Oswego County, New York, 
from seed of Concord planted about 1863. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes large, thick, 
dark brown with reddish tinge ; nodes enlarged, flattened ; tendrils 
continuous, slender, bifid, sometimes trifid. Young leaves tinged 
on the under side and along the margins of upper side with rose- 
carmine. Leaves large, thick ; upper surface dark green, glossy, 
smooth ; lower surface light bronze, pubescent ; leaf usually not 
lobed ; petiolar sinus wide, often urnshaped ; teeth shallow. Flowers 
fertile, mid-season ; stamens upright. 

Fruit early. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, usually single- 
shouldered, compact ; pedicel slender with a few small warts ; brush 
long, light green. Berries large, round, dark purplish-black, glossy 
with heavy bloom, firm ; skin tender, cracks badly, adheres slightly, 
contains dark red pigment, astringent. Flesh green, translucent, 
juicy, fine-grained, tough, foxy, sweet, mild ; good to very good. Seeds 
adherent, one to five, large, broad, short, blunt, brown. 



448 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING 

Wyoming 

(Labrusca) 

Hopkins Early Red, Wilmington Red, Wyoming Red 

Such value as Wyoming (Plate XXXII) possesses lies in the 
hardiness, productiveness and healthiness of the vine. The ap- 
pearance of the fruit is very good, the bunches are well formed 
and composed of rich amber-colored berries of medium size. 
The quality, however, is poor, being that of the wild Labrusca 
in foxiness of flavor and in flesh characters. It is not nearly as 
valuable as some other of the red Labruscas hitherto described 
and can hardly be recommended either for the garden or the 
vineyard. Wyoming was introduced by S. J. Parker of Ithaca, 
New York, who states that it came from Pennsylvania in 1861. 

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthjs productive. Canes numerous, 
slender, dark reddish-brown covered with blue bloom ; nodes enlarged, 
frequently flattened; tendrils continuous, short, bifid. Leaves of 
average size and thickness ; upper surface Ught green, dull, smooth ; 
lower surface dull green with tinge of bronze, pubescent ; lobes one to 
three mth terminus acute ; petiolar sinus shallow, wide ; basal sinus 
usually wanting ; lateral sinus shallow and wide when present ; teeth 
shallow. Flowers sterile, mid-season ; stamens reflexed. 

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters slender, cylindrical, compact ; 
pedicel short, slender with small warts; brush slender, pale green 
\vith brown tinge. Berries medium, round, rich amber red with thin 
bloom, persistent, firm ; skin tender, adherent, astringent ; flesh pale 
green, translucent, juicy, tough, solid, strongly foxy, vinous ; poor in 
quality. Seeds adherent, one to three, shghtly notched, hght brown. 



INDEX 

(Names of species, and synonyms of varietal names, are in italics.) 



Actoni, 330. 

Adaptations of stocks, 66. 

Adlum, John, mentioned, 58. 

Admirable, 373. 

Adoxus obscurus, 216. 

Aestivalis grapes, 11. 

Affinity of stock and cion, 67. 

Agawam, 331. 

Air currents, 27. 

Alabama, 401. 

Alexander, 5, 6. 

Alexander, 391. 

Alicante, for forcing, 198. 

Alleys, 75. 

Almeria, 331. 

Amadas & Barlowe, mentioned, 5. 

America, 332. 

American Muscadine, 435. 

Aminia, 333. 

Anaheim disease, 226. 

Anthony, on grafting, 47. 

Anthracnose, control of, 223. 

description of, 223. 
Aramon X Rupestris, 2, 64. 
Arbors, training vines on, 142. 
Arkansas, 345, 357. 
Arnold's Hybrid, 422. 
Aspiran Blanc, 442. 
August Giant, 333. 

Bacchus, 324. 
Bagging grapes, 293. 

cost of, 294. 
Bakator, 335. 

Barbarossa, for forcing, 197. 
Bark, structure of, 303. 
Barry, 335. 

Bartram, on the Alexander, 7. 
2g 



Beach Grape, 313. 
Beacon, 336. 
Beaconsfield, 346. 
Beak defined, 308. 
Bench grafting, 50. 

essentials of, 50. ' 

operation of, 51. 

preparing cuttings for, 51. 
Berckmans, 337. 
Berry, characters of, 308. 
Bioletti, on callusing beds, 56. 

on grafting, 48, 52. 

on pruning in California, 151. 

on resistant stocks, 63. 

quoted, 18. 
Bird Grape, 312. 
Bitter-rot, 225. 
Black Cape, 391. 
Black Cornichon, 429. 
Black Eagle, 338. 
Black El Paso, 401. 
Black German, 406. 
Black Hamburg, for forcing, 197. 
Black July, 401. 
Black Malvoise, 339. 
Black Morocco, 339. 
Black Muscat, 415. 
Black rot, control of, 320. 

description of, 319. 
Black Spanish, 401. 
Bloom defined, 301. 
Blooming dates of grapes, 288. 
Blooming, time of, 305. 
Blue French, 401. 
Blue Grape, 318, 322. 
Borders in graperies, making, 195. 

care of, 195. 
Bottsi, 382. 
449 



450 



INDEX 



Bowed canes, 174. 

Branches defined, 301. 

Brighton, 340. 

Brilliant, 341. 

Brown, 342. 

Brown French, 382. 

Brush defined, 307. 

Buckland Sweetwater, for forcing, 197. 

Buds, characters of, 304. 

defined, 304. 
Bull, 435. 

Bull, Ephraim W., mentioned, 9. 
Bull Grape, 310. 
Bullace, 435. 
Bullace Qrape, 310. 
Bullet, 435. 
Bullet Grape, 310. 
Bullitt, 439. 
Bunch Grape, 318. 
Burgundy, 401. 
Bush Grape, 312. 
Bushy Grape, 310. 
By-products of the grape, 269. 

Callusing bed, 56. 

Campbell Early, 342. 

Canada, 343. 

Canadian Hamhurg, 422. 

Canadian Hybrid, 422. 

Canandaigua, 344. 

Canandaigua Lake grape region, 21. 

Cane-renewal, 116. 

Canes, characters of, 303. 

defined, 301. 

disposition of, in pruning, 124. 
Care of young vines, 87. 
Carman, 344. 
Catawba, 345. 

history of, 8. 
Catawba Tokay, 345. 
Catch crops, 89, 90. 
Cato, on grafting, 45. 

quoted, 76. 
Cayuga Lake grape region, 21. 
Central Lake grape region, 20. 
Chalaza defined, 308. 
Champagne, 253. 
Champagne industry, 21. 
Champion, 346. 
Chasselas Golden, 347. 
Chasselas Dore, 347. 



Chasselas Rose, 348. 

Chautauqua, 348. 

Chautauqua grape-belt, 18. 

Chautauqua training, 125. 

Cherokee, 345. 

Chicken Grape, 317, 318. 

Cigar Box Grape, 401. 

Clevener, 349. 

Climate and grape-growing, 23. 

Clinton, 15, 350. 

Colerain, 351. 

Columbian Imperial, 351. 

Columbian Jumbo, 351. 

Commercial factors, 30. 

Concord, 352. 

history of, 9. 
Constantia, 391. 
Cooperative fertilizer experiments, 

102. 
Cordon pruning, 153. 
Cordons, horizontal, 176. 

vertical, 175. 
Cottage, 354. 
Coulure, 226. 
Cover-crops, 89, 91. 
Craponius incequalis, 217. 
Cream of tartar, 270. 
Cross-pollination, 284. 
Croton, 355. 
Crown-gall, 225. 
Cryptosporella viticola, 224. 
Cunningham, 356. 
Cuttings, dormant, 38. 

hard- wood, 38. 

herbaceous, 42. 

planting, 39. 

single-eye, 40. 

time to make, 38. 
Cutting wood, selecting, 38. 
Cut-worms on grapes, 315. 
Cynthiana, 357. 

Dead-arm disease, control of, 324. 

description of, 324. 
Delaware, 11, 358. 
Depth to plant, 86. 
Desmia funeralis, 216. 
Determinants of grape regions, 22. 
Devereaux , 401. 
Diamond, 359. 
Diana, 360. 



INDEX 



451 



Diaphragm, characters of, 303. 

defined, 301. 
Digging holes, JS3. 
Direct producers, 71. 
Direction of rows, 74. 
Distances in planting, 75. 
Dodrelabi, 379. 
Dorchester, 391. 

Double-headed vines, 174, ' 

Double Kniffin, 135 
Downing, 361. 
Downy mildew, control of, 222. 

description of, 220. 
Dracut Amber, 362. 
Drainage for grapes, 28, 77. 
Duck-shot Grape, 318. 
Dunn, 382. 
Dutchess, 362. 
Dynamite in digging holes, 84. 

Early Champion, 346. 
Early Daisy, 363. 
Early Ohio, 364. 
Early Victor, 364. 
Eaton, 365. 
Eclipse, 366. 
Eden, 367. 

Egg Harbor grape region, 22. 
Eldorado, 368. 
Elvira, 369. 

Emasculating grape-flowers, 279. 
Emperor, 369. 
Empire State, 370. 
Etta, 371. 
Eumelan, 371. 

European grapes, in eastern America, 
184. 

grafting, 186. 

varieties for eastern America, 191. 
Everbearing Grape, 312. 
Exposuies for grapes, 34. 

Factors limiting yield, 105. 
Faith, 372. 
Fall Grape, 318. 
Fancher, 345. 
Fan-training, 131. 
Feher Szagos, 373. 
Fern, 373. 
Fern Munson, 373. 
Fertilizers, applying; 106. 



Fertilizers, — Continued. 

efTects on leaves, 102. 

effects on vines, 102.- 

effects on yield, 101, 102 

experiment, 98. 

necessity of, 97. 

when needed, 106. 
Fidia viticida, 206. 
Fitting land, 78. 
Flame Tokay, 374. 
Flesh, characters of, 308. 
Florida Grape, 312. 
Flowers, 373. 

Flower, characters of, 305. 
Fontainehleau, 347. 
Fox Grape, 317, 324. 
Fox Grape, 435. 
Fox grapes, cultivation of, 7. 
Foxiness defined, 307. 
French Grape, 358. 
Frost Grape, 317. 
Frosts and grape-growing, 25. 
Fruit-bearing, manner of, 113. 
Fruit, characters of, 307. 

parts of, 307. 
Fungi, determinants of grape regions, 

29. 
Fungous diseases of the grape, 218. 

Gaertner, 375. 
Geneva, 376. 
Gibbs Grape, 391. 

Gladwin, on Chautauqua training, 
126. 

on Keuka training, 129. 

on vineyard returns, 248. 
Glomerella rufomacuUans, 225. 
"Go-devil," 119. 
Goethe, 377. 
Gold Coin, 377. 
Golden Chasselas, 424. 
Grading grapes, 235. 
Grading land, 78. 
Grafting, 45. 

at New York Station, 46. 

bundling grafts after, 55. 

essentials of, 45. 

European grapes, 186. 

rooted cuttings, 56. 
Grafted vineyards, care of, 48. 
Grafting wax, 54. 



452 



INDEX 



Grafts, care of, in nursery, 58. 

number made per hour, 56. 
Grape, botany of, 300. 

by-products of, 269. 

domestication of, 1. 

habitats of, 4. 

habits of growth of, 302. 

mutations in the, 60. 

number of species of, 1. 

organs of, 300. 

pests of, 204. 

products, 250. 
Grape-berry moth, control of, 215. 

life history of, 213. 
Grape-breeding, 273. 

results of, 282. 
Grape-curculio, 217. 
Grape hawk-moth, 217. 
Grape-hybrids, 274. 
Grape-juice, commercial making, 258. 

development of industry, 257. 

making at home, 262. 

regions in which made, 257. 
Grape leaf -folder, 216. 
Grape leaf-hopper, control of, 213. 

life history of, 211. 
Grape regions, determinants of, 16. 

in California, 18. 
Grape root-worm, Californian, 216. 

eastern, control of, 206. 

life history of, 206. 
Grape seedlings, 37. 
Graperies, 193. 

borders in, 195. 

care of vines in, 201. 

construction of, 193. 

essentials of, 194. 

heating, 194. 

varieties for, 196. 

ventilating, 194, 202. 

watering, 202. 
Grapes, American, 4. 

classified as to self-fertility, 296. 

domestic use of, 271. 

European, 2. 

forcing, 194. 

immunity to disease, 303. 

immunity to insects, 303. 

propagation of, 37. 

under glass, 192. 
Grape-vinegar, 269. 



Grape-vine root-borer, 217. 
Grape-vine flea-beetle, control of, 
209. 

life history of, 208. 
Greeley, Horace, mentioned, 9. 
Green Early, 378. 
Green Mountain, 445. 
Green Scuppernong, 435. 
Grein Golden, 378. 
Grizzly Frontignan, for forcing, 197. 
Gros Colman, 379. 

for forcing, 197. 
Guignardia Bidwellii, 220. 

Haltica chalybea, 209. 
Hardiness of grapes, 302. 
Hartford, 380. 
Hartzell, mentioned, 213. 
Harvesting, in California, 243. 

in the East, 230. 

Muscadine grapes, 240. 
Hawkins, Captain John, mentioned, 

5. 
Hayes, 381. 

Heading-back canes, 116. 
Headlight, 281. 
Heart-leaved Vitis, 317. 
Heating vineyards, 25. 
Heeling-in vines, 82. 
Helene, 391. 

Herbaceous cuttings, 42. 
Herbemont, 12, 382. 
Herbert, 383. 
Hercules, 384. 
Hermann grape region, 22. 
Hickman, 435. 
Hicks, 285. 
Hidalgo, 385. 
Highland, 386. 
Hilgarde, 373. 
Hilum defined, 308. 
Hopkins, 387. 
Hopkins Early Red, 448. 
Horizontal cordons, 176. 
Hosford, 388. 

Hudson horizontal training, 141. 
Hudson River grape region, 21. 
Humidity in grape-growing, 25. 
Hunt, 382. 
Husmann, on making grape-juice, 258. 

on raisin-making, 264. 



INDEX 



453 



Husmann & Bearing, on harvesting 
Muscadine grapes, 240. 
on pruning Muscadine grapes, 143. 
Hybrid Franc, 388. 
Hybridizing grapes, 278. 
Hybrids, secondary, 276. 

Ideal, 389. 

Improved Kniffin, 135. 

Inflorescences, number of, in species, 
304. 

Insect pests, 204. 

Insects as determinants of grape re- 
gions, 29. 

Internodes defined, 301. 

lona, 390. 

Irrigation, 95. 

Isabella, 390. 

Isabella, 391. 

Isabella Seedling, 392, 

Israella, 392. 

Ives, 393. 

Jack, 401. 

James, 394. 

Janesville, 394. 

Jaques, 401. 

Jarring Muscadine grapes, 241. 

Jefferson, 395. 

JefTerson, Thomas, on native grapes, 5. 

Jessica, 396. 

Jewel, 397. 

Joannenc, 402. 

Jordan, 415. 

July Sherry, 401. 

Kay's Seedling, 382. 

Keller's White, 345. 

Kensington, 398. 

Kentucky Vineyard Society, 7. 

Keuka Lake grape region, 21. 

King, 399. 

Kittredge, 393. 

Kniffin, Wm., mentioned, 132. 

Labels for packages, 238. 

Labor, determinant of grape regions, 

32. 
Ladies' Choice, 358, 
Lady, 399. 
Lady Downs, for forcing, 19S. 



Lady Washington, 400. 
Lake Erie grape region, 22. 
Laterals defined, 301. 
Lawton grape region, 22. 
Layering, 42. 

dormant wood, 43. 

essentials of, 43. 

green wood, 44. 

to fill vacancies, 44. 
Laying down vines, 295. 
Laying out vineyards, 74. 
Leaf-margins, characters of, 307. 
Leaf, characters of, 307. 

parts of, 306. 
Lebanon, 345. 

Legaux, Peter, mentioned, 7. 
Leif the Lucky, mentioned, 5. 
Lenoir, 13, 401. 
Lignan Blanc, 403. 
Lime, effects of, 101, 104. 
Lincoln, 345. 
Lindley, 402. 
Listan Blanc, 402. 
Little Grape, 318. 
Little Winter Grape, 318. 
Long, 356. 

Longworth, Nicholas, mentioned, 8. 
Lucile, 403. 
Luglienga, 402. 
Lutie, 404. 

Macrodactylus subspinosus, 210. 
Malaga, 405. 
Mammoth Catawba, 435. 
Marion, 406. 
Marion Port, 406. 
Marketing, 230, 246. 

cooperative, 246. 
Markets, accessibility, 30. 

general versus local, 31. 
Marking for planting, 79. 
Martha, 407. 
Massasoit, 408. 
Maxatawney, 409. 
McKee, 382. 
McPike, 405. 
Mead's Seedling, 345. 
Mealy-bug, 202. 
Memory, 409. 

Memythrus polistiformis, 217. 
Mendel's laws, 281, 



454 



INDEX 



Mcrccron, 345. 

Merrimac, 410. 

Michigan, 345. 

Mildew in graperies, 203. 

Mills, 411. 

Mish. 411. 

Mi.ssion, 412. 

Missouri Riesling, 413. 

Montefiore, 413. 

Moore Early, 414. 

Moore, Jacob, mentioned, 276. 

Moscatello, 415. 

Moscatello Black, 415. 

Mountain Grape, 313, 318, 

Moyer, 415. 

Mayer's Early Red, 415. 

Muncy, 345. 

Munson, mentioned, 277. 

on pruning, 136. 

on resistant species, 63. 
Munson method of pruning, 136. 
Muscadine Grape, 310. 
Muscadine, 435. 

Muscadine grapes for wine, 256. 
Muscatel, 416. 
Muscat Hamburg, 417. 

for forcing, 197. 
Muscat of Alexandria, 418. 
Mustang Grape, 323. 

of Florida, 312. 
Mutations in improving grapes, 277. 

Napoleon I, mentioned, 196. 

Neal, 382. 

Niagara, 418. 

Niagara grape region, 20. 

Nitrogen, benefits from, 101. 

Noah, 419. 

Nodes defined, 301. 

Nodosities, 66. 

Northern ^stivalis, 322. 

Northern Muscadine, 420. 

Northern Summer Grape, 322. 

Norton, 421. 

Norton, Dr. D. N., mentioned, 11. 

Noyes, Dr., mentioned, 15. 

Number of vines to the acre, 76. 

Ohio, 401. 

Ohio River grape region, 22. 



Oporto, 422. 
Othello, 422. 
Ozark, 423. 

Packages for California, 245. 

for eastern America, 236. 

for Muscadine grapes, 243. 
Packing houses, 233. 

construction of, 234. 

cost of, 233. 
Packing, in the East, 237. 

Muscadine grapes, 241. 
Packing tables, 234. 
Palomino, 424. 
Paw Paw grape region, 22. 
Payne's Early, 391. 
Peabody, 424. 
Pedicel defined, 305. 
Peduncle defined, 305. 
Perfection, 425. 

Pergolas, training vines on, 142. 
Perkins, 426. 
Pests in graperies, 202. 
Petiole, characters of, 307. 
Pholus achemon, 217. 
Phosphorus, benefits from, 101. 
Phylloxera, 13, 61, 205. 

control of, 206. 
Phylloxera vastatrix, 205. 
Pickers, 231. 
Picking, accounts for, 232. 

appliances, 232. 

time of, 231. 
Pigeon Grape, 318. 
Pine-wood Grape, 320. 
Piquette, making, 270. 
Planting, 83, 85. 

distances, 75. 

grafted vines, 68. 

in graperies, 198. 
Plasmopara viticola, 220. 
Pliny, mentioned, 2. 
Plowing the vineyard, 94. 

to combat pests, 95. 
Pocklington, 426. 
Pollen, characters of, 306. 
Pollinating in hybridizing, 280. 
Polychrosis viteana, 214. 
Pomace as a by-product, 270. 
Possum Grape, 317. 
Posts, 119. 



INDEX 



455 



Posts, — Continued. 

bracing, 120. 

material, 119. 

setting, 120. 
Post-oak Grape, 320. 
Post-oak grapes, 13. 
Potassium, benefits from, 101. 
Poughkeepsie, 427. 
Powdery mildew, control of, 223. 

description of, 222. 
Powell, 358. 

Pre-cooling grapes, 245. 
Prentiss, 428. 

Preparation for planting, 76, 82. 
Preparing vines for planting, 80, 81. 
Prince Edward, 356. 
Prince, W. R., mentioned, 274. 
Profits from fertilizers, 101. 
Pruning, before planting, 160. 

cordon method, 153. 

European grapes in eastern America, 
107. 

fan-shaped, 153, 172. 

first summer, 160. 

first winter, 161. 

for fruit, 112. 

for wood, 112. 

in eastern America, 108. 

Muscadine grapes, 143. 

on the Pacific slope, 150. 

principles of, 111. 

second summer, 161. 

second winter, 163. 

single vertical cordon, 157. 

summer, 115. 

third summer, 167. 

third winter, 168. 

to regulate the crop, 110. 

to regulate the vine, 111. 

unilateral horizontal cordon, 158. 

vase-form, 153. 

winter, 114. 

work of, 118. 
Pruning and training distinguished, 109. 
Prunings, collecting, 118. 
Purple Cornichon, 429. 

Qualit.y defined, 307. 

Raffia, in grafting, 54. 
Raisin industry, seat of, 263. 



Raisin-making, account of, 264. 
Raisin output, value of, 263. 
Raisins, classes of, 266. 

dipping and scalding, 264. 

packing, 265. 

seeded, 267. 

varieties for, 263. 
Randall, 331. 
Raphe defined, 308. 
Rating as to resistance to phylloxera, 

66. 
Rattling, 224. 
Rebecca, 429. 
Reciprocal influence of stock and cion, 

68. 
Red Eagle, 430. 
Red River, 357. 
Red-spider in graperies, 202. 
Refrigerator cars for grapes, 245. 
Regal, 431. 

Rejuvenating old vines, 147. 
Renewal by canes, 116. 

by spurs, 117. 
Renewing fruiting wood, 116. 
Requa, 431. 

Returns from Muscadine grapes, 242. 
Ricketts, J. H., mentioned, 274. 
Ringing grape vines, 289. 

operation of, 290. 

results of, 291. 

theory of, 290. 
Riparia Gloire, 64, 65. 
Riparia grande glabre, 64, 65. 
Riparia Solonis, 64. 
Ripening dates for grapes, 296. 
Ripe-rot, control of, 225. 

description of, 225. 
River Grape, 314. 
Riverbank Grape, 314. 
Riverbank grapes, 13. 
Riverside Grape, 314. 
Roanoke, 435. 

Robins, depredations of, 293. 
Rochester, 432. 
Rock Grape, 313. 
Rogers, E. S., mentioned, 274. 
Rommel, 433. 

Rommel, Jacob, mentioned, 276. 
Root, its parts named, 301. 
Root-forms of grapes, 67. 
Rootlets defined, 301. 



456 



INDEX 



Root-tip defined, 301. 

Rosaki, 433. 

Rose chafer, control of, 211. 

life history of, 210. 
Rose of Peru, 434. 
Rose of Tennessee, 345. 
Rotundifolia grapes, 9. 
Ruff, 358. 
Rupestris St. George, 64. 

Salem, 435. 
Sand Grape, 313. 
Sandusky grape region, 22. 
Sanitation in the vineyard, 227. 
Saratoga, 345. 
Scuppernong, 310, 435. 
Seasonal sum of heat, 24. 
Secretary, 436. 
Seedlings, selecting. 37. 
Seeds, as by-products, 271. 

characters of, 308. 

parts of, 308. 
Selecting vines, 81. 
Selection in improving grapes, 277. 
Self-sterility in grapes, 285. 

cause of, 286. 

remedy for, 287. 
Senasqua, 437. 

Seneca Lake grape region, 21. 
Shelling, 424. 

Shipping from California, 245. 
Shoots, characters of, 303. 

defined, 301. 

disposition of, in training, 123. 

drooping, in training, 132. 

horizontal, in training, 141. 

upright, in training;, 125. 
Single-eye cuttings, 40. 

making, 41. 

planting, 41. 
Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin, 132. 
Singleton, 345. 
Single vertical cordon, 157. 
Sites for vineyards, 26, 32. 
Skin, characters of, 30S. 
Smith, Captain John, mentioned, 5. 
Smudging vineyards, 25. 
Soil adaptations, 29. 

fertility, 28. 
Soils for grapes, 27. 

ideal, 28. 



Soils for grapes, — Continued. 

over-rich, 107. 

uneven, 105. 
Sour Winter Grape, 317. 
Southern ^stivalis, 321. 
Southern Fox Grape, 310. 
Spanish Grape, 318. 
Species, conspectus of, 310. 

resistant to phylloxera, 62. 
Sphaceloma anipelinum, 223. 
Sports in improving grapes, 277. 
Spraying suggestions, 228. 
Springstcin, 401. 
Spurs defined, 301. 
Spur-renewal, 117. 
Staking vines, 162. 
Stamens, characters of, 306. 
Stem defined, 301. 

its parts named, 301. 
Stocks, resistant to phylloxera, 61. 

for American grapes, 69. 

for European grapes, 69. 
Storage-room for grapes, 239. 
Storing grapes, 238. 
Stripping, 118. 
Suckers defined, 301. 
Sugar Grape, 313. 
Sultana, 438. 
Sultanina, 438. 
vSummer Grape, 318. 
Summer grapes, 11. 
Summer pruning, 115. 
Swamp Grape, 318. 
Sweet-scented Grape, 314. 
Sweetivater, 347. 
Syrian, for forcing, 198. 

Talman's Seedling, 346. 

Tap-root defined, 301. 

Taylor, 439. 

Tekomah, 343. 

Tendrils, characters of, 304. 

defined, 301. 
Theophrastus, on grafting, 45. 
Thinning in graperies, 201. 
Thompson'' s Seedless, 438. 
Thrips, 211. 

in graperies, 202. 
Tillage, 92. 

methods, 93. 

time to cease, 95. 



INDEX 



457 



Tillage, — Continued. 

tools for, 93. 
Time to plant, 84. 
Tokay, 345. 
Tongue grafting, 52. 
Training, Chautauqua method, 125. 

classification of methods, 125. 

in eastern America, 123. 

fan-method, 131. 

in graperies, 198. 

Keuka method, 139. 
Trellises, 119. 
Triumph, 440. 
Tuberosities, caused by phylloxera, 

66. 
Turkey Grape, 320. 
Two-trunk Kniffin, 135. 
Tying, 122. 
Typhlocyba comes, 211. 

Ulster, 441. 
Umbrella KnifSn, 134. 
Uncinula necator, 222. 
Unilateral horizontal cordon, 158. 

Valk, Dr., mentioned, 274. 

Varieties of European grapes for eastern 

America, 191. 
Varieties resistant to phylloxera, 62. 
Verdal, 442. 
Vergennes, 442. 
Vertical canes, 174. 

cordons, 175. 
Vinegar from grapes, 269. 
Vines, nursery versus home grown, 
59. 

"pedigreed," 59. 

rejuvenating old, 147. 

resistant to phylloxera, 61. 

young, care of, 87. 
Vineyard grafting, in eastern America, 
45. 

on Pacific slope, 48. 
Vineyard, management, 73. 

returns in the East, 247. 

sanitation, 227. 

sites, 32. 
Vintage, time of, 254. 
Virgil, on soils, 28, 

quoted, 31, 34, 37. 
Virginia Amber, 345. 



Vitis, genus defined, .308. 
Vitis (Bstivalis, 11, 318. 

Bourquiniana, 11, 321. 
glauca, 321. 
Lincecumii, 13, 320. 

Berlandieri, 318. 

bicolor, 322. 

candicans, 323. 

cordifolia, 317. 

Labrusca, 7, 324. 

Munsoniana, 312. 

riparia, 314. (Syn. of V. dulpina.) 

rotundifolia, 9, 310. 

rupestris, 313. 

vinifera, 2, 328. 

vulpina, 314. 
Vulpina grapes, 13. 

as direct producers, 13. 

Wakeman, Elbert, mentioned, 136. 

Walter, 443. 

Warren, 382, 401. 

Warrenton, 382. 

Washington, 371. 

Water, influence of, on climate, 

23. 
Watering, at planting, 86. 

in graperies, 202. 
Water sprouts defined, 301. 
Weather data and grape-growing, 

26. 
White July, 402. 
White Nice, for forcing, 198. 
White Frontignan, 416. 
Wilder, 444. 
Wilmington Red, 448. 
Winchell, 445. 
Windbreaks in grape-growing, 25, 

27. 
Wine, aging, 253. 

crushing grapes for, 252. 

fermentation of, 253. 

fining, 253. 

kinds of, 251. 

racking, 253. 

yeasts for, 253. 
Wine-grapes, prices paid for, 255. 
Wine-making, 252. 
Wire for trellises, 121. 
Wire grafting, 54. 
Winter Grape, 314, 317, 318. 



458 



INDEX 



Winter-killing, 26. 

precautions against, 295. 
M^inter protection of grapes, 187, 294. 

cost of, 296. 
Winter-pruning, 114. 
Woodruff, 446. 
Woodward, 391. 
Worden, 446. 



Worthington. 15, 350. 
Wyoming, 448. 
Wyoming Red, 448. 



Yields in fertilizer experiments, 100, 

101. 
Y-trunk Kniffin training, 136. 



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